LB 

587 


UC-NRLF 


Sfimerican  Sficafcemp  of 

(Specializing  in  Medical  Sociology) 


STUDIES   OF   THE    PRESENT   TEACHING  OF  HYGIENE 

THROUGH 
"  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE" 

AND  THROUGH 
••  NATURE  STUDY" 


Being  the  Second  Section  of  the  Report  of  the  Committee 
to  Investigate   the   Teaching  of  Hygiene  in  Public  Schools 


Published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Academy  : 
Price,  50  cents  each 

Compilation  of  standing  Laws,  April,  1904. 

Study  of  Laws  and  Study  of  Textbooks, 
June,  1905. 

Report  of  Hygiene  taught  in  "Domestic 
Science  "  and  in  "  Nature  Study,"  April,  1906. 

Report  of  Hygiene  taught  in  Physical 
Training  and  in  Medical  Inspection.  To  be 
published. 

Other  sections  will  appear  annually  until 
the  field  is  covered. 


Reprinted  from  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Academy  of  Medicine. 
Price,  2oc.     Address,  52  North  Fourth  Street,  Easton,  Pa. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF 

HYGIENE  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS.1 

(Continued.) 


The  plan  of  work  of  the  Committee  to  Investigate  the  Teaching 
of  Hygiene  in  Public  Schools2  was  stated  in  the  Bulletin,  June  1905, 
as  follows  : 

The  committee  finds  five  chief  methods  by  which  public 
schools  are  directly  teaching  personal,  domestic  and  public 
-*  hygiene,  including  physiology  and  anatomy.    The  committee 
will  not  consider  in  detail  the  school  environment  and  cus- 
*    toms  indirectly  influencing  pupils'  standards  of  hygiene. 
-  The  direct  methods  are: 

(i)  "Domestic  science,"  including  cookery,  foods  and 
nutrition;  sewing,  materials  and  dressing;  care  of  the 
house  and  of  the  sick;  emergencies. 

,      (2)  Physical  training,   including  gymnastics,   play  and 
athletics,  and  various  physical  habits. 

(3)  Biology  ("nature  study")  and  "science  teaching," 
showing  conditions,  phenomena,  and  processes  of  physical 
life. 

(4)  Medical    inspection,     teaching    prevention    of     ill 
health,  personal,  domestic,  public. 

(5)  Physiology  and  hygiene  with  special  reference  to  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  upon  the  human 
system. 

(6)  Several  sporadic  methods. 

With  one  exception  this  teaching  is  by  the  "laboratory  method," 
»'.  e.,  practice  is  the  essential  feature,  less  or  no  time  being  given 

1  Presented  to  the  American  Academy  of  Medicine  at  Chicago,  111.,  November  9,  1905. 

2  At  the  annual  meeting,  June,  1903,  the  following  was  voted:  "Resolved,  That  the 
president  appoint  a  committee  of  three  to  investigate  the  teaching  of  hygiene  in  our 
public  schools,  and  to  report  to  the  Academy  at  its  next  meeting." 

The  president,  Dr.  Mclntire,  appointed,  accordingly,  Dr.  Helen  C.  Putnam  of  Provi- 
dence, Rhode  Island,  Dr.  Edward  Jackson  of  Denver,  Colorado,  and  Dr.  George  G.  Groff 
of  I,ewisburg,  Pennsylvania. 

The  first  report  was  presented  to  the  American  Academy  of  Medicine  at  Atlantic 
City,  June  6,  1904,  and  the  committee  continued,  and  was  published  in  June,  1905,  Vol.  vii, 
p.  i. 


242239 


to  text-books.  "Scientific  temperance  instruction"  (the  name 
used  by  the  progenitors  of  the  fifth  method)  is  chiefly  by  text- 
book, less  or  no  time  being  given  to  demonstration. 

The  committee  submitted  in  1905  as  the  first  section  of  its 
report  a  study  of  all  the  laws  regulating  the  teaching  of  physiology 
and  hygiene,  and  a  study  of  73  common  school  text-books  on  the 
subject  written  since  1882,  the  year  of  the  first  law. 

In  summing  up  the  details  of  the  Federal  and  45  state  laws1  the 
following  observations  were  made: 

(1)  No  law  states  what  shall  be  taught  as  to  the  nature 
and   effects  of  alcoholic   drinks   and  narcotics   upon   the 
human  system;  nor  that  total  abstinence  shall  be  taught. 

(2)  No  law  prevents  the  teaching  of  temperance  from 
an  economic,  moral,  sociologic,  or  other  view-point  than 
physiologic. 

(3)  No  law  prevents  the  teaching  of  hygiene  through 
''domestic   science,"    physical   training,    biology,    medical 
inspection,  or  in  other  ways. 

(4)  No  law  requires  indorsement  of  text-books  by  the 
Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union. 

(5)  Forty-two  laws  do  not  stipulate  the  space2  for  tem- 
perance in  text-books  on  hygiene;  43  laws  do  not  specify 
number  and  length  of  lessons2  in  hygiene  (including  tem- 
perance) . 

In  other  words : 

These  laws  leave  ample  openings  for  other  text-books, 

methods,  teachings,  to  any  interested  in  hygiene  (including 

temperance  for  physiologic  reasons)  who  have  the  capacity 

to  take  advantage  of  such  openings  to  demonstrate  better 

.    ideas. 

In  the  study  of  text-books,  35  "indorsed,"  with  16  revised 
editions,  35  not  indorsed,  with  6  revised  editions,  and  3  laboratory 
books,  a  total  of  93  volumes,  the  following  notes  were  made. 

Specialists  in  natural  science   are   replacing   physicians 
and  general  teachers  as  authors. 

1  These  laws  as  existing  in  1903,  compiled  by  the  committee,  are  published  as  a  pre- 
iminary  report  in  the  Bulletin,  April,  1904. 

2  Minimum  is  specified  in  other  three  or  four. 


Nearly  all  contain  the  following  topics  in  hygiene,  listed  in 
order  of  frequency. 

Foods,  with  discussion  of  classes,  nutritive  values,  and 
cookery  (occasionally).  First  aid  to  the  injured,  care  of 
the  sick,  quality  of  clothing,  common  diseases,  poisons  and 
antidotes,  drinking-water  and  drainage,  cooking,  several 
gymnastic  exercises,  contagious  diseases,  several  active 
games,  antiseptics  and  disinfectants,  "public  hygiene/'  food 
inspection,  patent  medicines,  school  inspection,  tests  for 
eyes  and  hearing.  The  great  majority  of  the  topics  re- 
ceive only  briefest  discussion,  and  the  last  seven  are  chiefly 
in  a  few  recent  books. 
These  final  notes  on  the  evolution  of  text-books  were  made : 

(1)  The  subjects  have  been  simplified  until  we  have 
37  text-books  for  elementary  grades,    13^  million  pupils 
who  go  no  further  in  the  schools ;  a  few  books  as  excellent 
for  their  purpose  as  are  any  of  the  high-school  books  for 
theirs.    Twenty-two    years    ago    there    were    practically 
none. 

(2)  The  average  proportion  of  hygiene  is  one-third  of 
modern  text-books,   a  little  more  in  elementary  grades 
and  less  in  high  school.     A  very  few  give  more  than  one- 
half  their  pages  to  it.     The  average  in  25  books  "for  high 
schools"   (or  colleges)  published  before  1883  is  less  than 
one-twelfth. 

(3)  Illustrative    experiments    in    all    grades    are    very 
greatly  multiplied;  and  for  the  high  schools  since   1897 
there  have   been   published   3   books   entirely  of   simple 
laboratory  experiments;  and  one  text-book  in  which  ex- 
periments constitute  fully  one-half  the  book,  forming  the 
basis  of  its  teachings.     Even  in  1883  a  few  suspected  that 
to  try  to  teach  children  science  without  demonstration 
results  in  "a  mere  mummery  of  words." 

(4)  Easily  observed  facts  about  other  objects  in  animal 
and  vegetable  life,  and  simple  principles  in  physics  and 
chemistry  are  much  more  often  utilized  to  make  the  main 
subject  clearer,  the  former  especially  in  elementary  grades. 


(5)  Scientific   progress  is   reflected  not  only  in  many 
details  of  accuracy  of  statements,  but  also  in  added  teach- 
ings concerning  cells,  cerebral  localization  and  the  nervous 
system ;  bacteria,  communicable  diseases,  dust,  antiseptics ; 
inspection  of  schools,  foods  and  milk;  common  intoxicants 
and  patent  medicines.     A  few  school  books  before   1883 
urged  the  dangers  of  alcoholic  drinks,  usually  employing 
the  confirmed  inebriate  as  an  example. 

(6)  There   are   fewer   pathologic   details    (or   they   are 
selected  with  greater  discretion),  and  more  attention  to 
normal  states.     The  ideal  of  a  healthy,   active  physical 
life  as  a  basis  for  success  and  happiness  is  kept  in  the 
foreground  and  made  more  interesting.     That   "success 
depends  on  health  "  is  fortified  in  several  books  by  numerous 
lately  discovered  facts  in  school  work  and  business  life. 

(7)  One  feature  of  all  these  volumes  is  that  all  relating 
even  remotely  to  the  anatomy,  physiology,  and  hygiene 
of  the  reproductive  system  is  omitted. 

The  first  section  of  the  committee's  report  concluded  as  follows : 
The  committee  has  endeavored  to  present  impartially 
such  details  as  it  has  had  time  and  opportunity  to  collect. 
It  has  so  far  as  possible  presented  facts  rather  than  opinions, 
and  will  follow  the  same  plan  in  studying  the  other  direct 
methods  of  teaching  hygiene  mentioned  in  the  introduction. 
After  these  have  had  a  reasonably  fair  survey,  comparisons 
and  conclusions  will  follow  with  as  just  discrimination  as 
to  what  is  good  and  what  is  desirable  as  this  basis  of  facts 
allows. 

SECOND  SECTION:  STUDIES  OF  THE  PRESENT  TEACH- 
ING OF  HYGIENE  THROUGH  "DOMESTIC  SCIENCE" 
AND  "NATURE  STUDY.'1 

GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  report  on  the  teaching  of  hygiene 
through  "domestic  science"  and  through  "nature  study"  as  it 
is  called  in  the  grades,  or  botany,  biology,  chemistry,  physics, 
"science  teaching"  in  high  schools,  eighteen  cities  east  of  the 
Mississippi  have  been  visited,  and  over  seventy  classes  in  domestic 


science  and  nearly  as  many  in  nature  study  have  been  observed, 
in  elementary,  high,  normal  and  some  special  schools.  Also 
numerous  reports  have  been  examined  and  several  leading  educa- 
tors and  citizens  as  well  as  a  considerable  number  of  members  of 
school  boards,  superintendents,  principals,  and  general  and  special 
teachers  have  been  consulted. 

The  committee  begs  to  acknowledge  here  in  behalf  of  the 
Academy  the  courtesies  and  generous  responses  that  have  been 
met  on  every  side.  Such  cordial  assistance  is  most  gratefully 
appreciated  as  coming  from  public  officials  than  whom  there  are 
no  others  more  crowded  with  duties. 

It  is  not  possible  to  present  within  the  reasonable  limits  of  this 
report  all  the  details  observed  concerning  the  subjects  of  in- 
vestigation, nor  is  it  essential  to  a  fair  presentation.  An  attempt 
is  made  to  give  the  chief  features  and  chief  tendencies  so  far  as 
they  affect  the  teaching  of  hygiene. 

One  must  note  especially  the  enthusiasm  of  special  teachers  of 
domestic  science  and  of  natural  science  and  the  absorbed  interest 
of  their  pupils  in  the  lower  grades  particularly  in  spite  of  the 
unusual  freedom  of  moving  about  and  other  variations  from 
classic  school  methods.  Also  one  finds  a  very  general  and  con- 
fident belief  that  these  subjects  have  come  to  stay,  and  that  they 
are  in  the  midst  of  rapid  evolution  into  more  definite  methods 
for  teaching  them.  In  the  most  progressive  cities  practically 
all  new  school  houses  are  building  school  kitchens,  sometimes 
dining  rooms,  and  when  possible  providing  ground  for  school 
gardens — the  outdoor  laboratory  for  the  natural  sciences,  while 
old  school  buildings  are  resorting  to  various  expedients  to  supply 
these  needs.  In  very  many  places  private  citizens  bear  the 
expense  attending  their  introduction. 

SPECIAL  TEACHERS. 

Both  domestic  science  and  nature  study  have  been  growing  in 
the  schools  for  about  the  same  period  as  has  instruction  in  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  but  the  former  have  developed  far  less  widely. 
This  difference  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  support  which  the 
Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  has  given  to  instruction 
in  physiology  and  hygiene  as  a  basis  for  instruction  in  temperance. 


It  is  also  partly  due  to  the  difference  in  cost.  Physiology  and 
hygiene,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  schools  the  natural  sciences 
have  been  taught  by  the  general  teacher.  Domestic  science  is 
invariably  taught  by  special  teachers  when  cooking  is  included, 
and  at  least  requires  special  supervisors  to  guide  the  general 
teachers  when  sewing  is  taught,  while  for  both  more  or  less  special 
equipment  is  needed.  Although  expense  has  been  an  obstacle 
to  rapid  extension,  probably  not  over  100  cities  having  domestic 
science  in  their  schools,  special  teachers  on  the  other  hand  have 
produced,  are  producing  unquestionably  more  definite  educational 
results.  In  the  very  few  cities  where  there  are  special  teachers 
of  natural  science,  particularly  in  the  grades,  the  educational 
results  are  conspicuously  superior.  Many  educators  believe 
"nature  study"  under  the  general  teacher  is  in  many  cases,  not 
in  all,  chiefly  a  way  of  "killing  time." 

The  salaries  of  these  special  teachers  vary  from  $300  to  $2,000, 
and  this  indicates  fairly  the  wide  range  in  their  qualifications. 
Not  infrequently  we  find  that  a  general  teacher  from  the  grades 
or  a  normal  graduate  spends  a  few  months,  possibly  a  year,  in 
perhaps  a  school  of  local  reputation  only,  "cramming"  so-called 
"domestic  science,"  and  begins  teaching  with  this  inadequate 
preparation.  Many  are  high  school,  normal  or  college  graduates 
who  have  taken  special  courses  of  two  or  three  years  at  special 
institutes  such  as  Pratt  or  Drexel. 

Another  small  group,  college  women  as  a  rule,  add  to  their 
undergraduate  courses  in  biology  and  chemistry  extended  uni- 
versity graduate  work  in  physical  sciences,  in  sociologic  studies, 
and  in  "arts  and  crafts,"  and  special  research  work  with  such 
eminent  scholars  as  Professor  W.  O.  Atwater  and  others  found  at 
our  chief  educational  centres.  Special  teachers  in  biologic 
subjects,  in  chemistry,  physics,  etc.,  are  with  very  few  exceptions 
in  high  schools  only;  are  as  a  rule  college  men  and  women,  who 
have  had  in  many  cases  additional  special  courses  often  indicated 
by  master's  or  doctor's  degrees.  The  authors  of  numerous  text- 
books, including  text-books  on  physiology  and  hygiene,  are 
from  these  two  groups  of  specialists. 


Domestic  Science  Courses. 

As  one  of  the  latest  best  series  of  text-books  was  examined  last 
year  to  assist  in  gaining  a  fair  understanding  of  the  possibilities 
and  aims  of  direct  text-book  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene, 
so  an  elementary  and  a  high  school  course  in  domestic  science  by 
two  of  the  best  special  teachers  will  be  reported  for  the  purpose  of 
learning  what  is  attempted  as  being  possible  and  desirable  to 
introduce  concerning  hygiene  in  such  courses. 

EQUIPMENT. 

A  school  kitchen,  or  kitchen  laboratory  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  equipped  with  an  individual  work  table  for  each  pupil, 
having  gas  stove  and  oven,  and  a  variety  of  utensils  including 
thermometers  and  measuring  glasses.  Less  fortunate  schools 
require  four  or  more  children  to  use  the  same  table,  or,  worse  still, 
the  class  looks  on  while  two  or  three  assist  the  teacher  to  do  the 
work. 

The  laboratory  has  in  addition  a  coal  range,  possibly  "Aladdin 
oven"  and  "hay  box,"  and  the  general  furnishings  of  a  home 
kitchen,  as  sink,  cupboards,  large  table,  scales,  etc.  On  the 
walls  for  reference  are  charts  of  the  food  principles  in  various 
food-stuffs  on  the  market  with  nutritive  values  in  calories ;  diagrams 
of  cuts  of  beef,  mutton,  etc.;  of  plumbing  systems  and  traps; 
reports  of  state  or  city  board  of  health;  tables  for  reference  to 
chemical  formulae,  details  in  physics  or  in  biology.  Along  the 
side  of  a  few  kitchens  runs  a  table  with  reagents  and  apparatus 
ready  for  settlement  of  questions  in  chemistry  on  the  spot.  Other 
kitchens  open  directly  into  the  chemical  laboratory.  A  portion 
of  the  room  or  an  adjacent  one  is  used  for  a  dining  room.  In  two 
schools  visited  a  sleeping  room,  bath  room  and  laundry  are  part 
of  the  equipment  for  teaching  sanitary  housewifery. 

In  some  cities  there  is  the  same  tendency  as  in  other  public 
expenditures  to  put  money  into  buildings  and  equipment  rather 
than  into  teachers,  or  as  one  in  an  elegant  high  school  said:  "It 
is  a  question  here  between  eastern  rugs  and  salaries" — in  the  last 
analysis  a  question  of  the  quality  of  citizens  produced.  Where 
we  should  have  stable  civil  service  control  we  find  fluctuating 


8 

political  influence — as  disastrous  to  educational  progress  as  to 
other  municipal  betterment. 

A  HIGH   SCHOOL  COURSE. 

This  accomplished  instructor  is  teacher  of  chemistry  (her 
certificate  admitting  pupils  to  the  highest  universities  without 
examination)  as  well  as  of  domestic  science.  She  easily  ranks 
among  the  leading  teachers  in  domestic  science  in  public  schools 
and  has  had  in  preparation  some  of  the  best  advantages  in  this 
country. 

Her  course  is  elective  and  extends  through  the  four  years  of 
high  school.  Her  assistant  is  a  college  woman,  graduate  of  a 
three  years  normal  course  in  domestic  science.  Her  teacher  of 
sewing  is  a  high  school  graduate,  with  the  additional  training 
given  at  Pratt  Institute  in  sewing  and  domestic  art.  In  the 
following  outline  only  those  points  are  mentioned  bearing  upon 
the  teaching  of  hygiene  and  sanitation. 

The  instructor  states  that  although  physiology  and  hygiene 
are  taught  in  the  lower  grades  of  her  city  according  to  law,  the 
children  coming  to  her  classes  know  practically  nothing  of  them. 
In  this  city  no  text-books  in  hygiene  are  used  in  the  grades.  They 
have  recently  discontinued  one  published  in  1884  and  are  con- 
sidering the  introduction  of  new  books.  The  general  teachers 
give  fragmentary  instruction  weekly  at  morning  exercises  or  other 
convenient  intervals,  less  systematically  on  physiology  and 
hygiene  than  on  cigarette  smoking  and  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks. 

Domestic  science  is  also  taught  in  the  two  higher  grammar 
grades.  The  instructor  states  that  this  is  of  no  special  advantage 
to  her  classes  because  many,  probably  half  or  more,  do  not  get 
the  grammar  work,  their  school  not  having  been  equipped,  or 
they  come  from  a  private  school  or  from  some  other  city,  or  the 
standards  of  the  lower  teachers  are  too  varied.  She  therefore 
begins  with  rudimentary  principles  throughout  her  course. 

This  lack  of  coordination  and  uniformity,  and  particularly  the 
superficiality  of  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  is  more  or 
less  characteristic  of  all  the  cities  visited.  One  cannot  affirm  that 
this  special  high  school  work  suffers  in  consequence,  since  the  age 
of  the  pupils  and  the  view-point  of  the  instructor  might  allow  the 


subjects  to  be  advantageously  handled,  from  fundamentals  up, 
after  her  more  mature  fashion.  Undoubtedly  elementary  schools 
influence  pupils'  choice  of  electives. 

It  is,  however,  evident  that  public  demands  on  public  schools 
are  just  now  exceeding  their  capacity,  and  that  in  the  process  of 
readjustment  between  classic  aims  and  twentieth  century  needs 
almost  unavoidable  confusion  exists.  It  is  in  such  a  transition 
period,  before  new  features  are  "settled,"  that  favorable  op- 
portunity for  bettering  instruction  in  hygiene  offers  itself — an 
opportunity  to  be  seized  promptly  and  developed  wisely. 

Correlation. 

Physics  and  chemistry  in  this  school  ere  definitely  correlated 
with  domestic  science,  the  latter  being  regarded  as  the  practical 
application  of  several  sciences  and  arts  to  living — to  a  very  large 
and  important  part  of  living.  The  instructor  in  physics  says: 
"I  have  certain  principles  in  physics  to  teach.  I  wish  to  teach 
them  through  examples  in  the  pupil's  daily  environment  to  fix 
them  in  memory  by  their  familiar  presence,"  and  asks  for  sugges- 
tions of  their  domestic  applications.  The  instructors  in  art  and 
in  biology  pursue  similar  methods. 

The  wisdom  of  intelligent  cooperation  is  evident  but  is  not 
always  found  to  this  degree,  sometimes  is  apparently  ignored. 
In  another  school  the  question  put  a  teacher  of  physics,  "How 
do  you  coordinate  your  work  with  domestic  science?"  was  an- 
swered: "I  don't  believe  in  coordination.  If  you  teach  physics, 
teach  physics;  if  you  teach  chemistry,  teach  chemistry."  "But 
why  not  economize  the  pupil's  time  and  energy,  get  him  along 
faster  by  teaching  some  of  the  principles  of  both  through  familiar 
domestic  events?"  He  pronounced  sentence  against  himself  by 
replying,  "Because  I  have  noticed  that  children  never  remember  in 
one  department  what  they  learned  in  some  other."  The  reply  is  a 
text  for  a  volume  of  commentary  on  public  schools  in  their  rela- 
tion to  citizenship. 

By  this  correlation  in  physics,  chemistry,  art  and  the  natural 
sciences,  the  theories  and  laws  of  energy,  liquids,  gases,  heat, 
light,  electricity,  lead  directly  to  examination  of  methods  and 
apparatus  for  warming  buildings,  ventilation,  plumbing,  light- 


10 

ing,  municipal  sanitation,  sewage  disposal,  street  cleaning,  water 
filtration,  etc.,  and  form  the  basis  of  much  of  the  work  in  the 
domestic  science  department. 

In  this  domestic  science  course  text-books  are  not  used  except 
for  reference.  The  department  has  an  up-to-date  little  library 
in  its  kitchen,  as  do  many  others.1  Note-books  are  only  kept  for 
the  pupils'  own  satisfaction.  Other  schools  utilize  them  for 
training  in  English,  and  in  accuracy  and  conciseness  in  writing 
(thinking). 

Sewing. 

In  sewing,  a  two  years  course,  manual  details  and  art  principles 
are  elaborated  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  uninitiated  would 
imagine. 

Direct  instruction  is  given  on  the  hygienic  value  of  the  materials 
in  hand,  with  reference  to  use  as  clothing  in  different  ages,  occupa- 
tions, climates,  seasons,  weathers,  the  physiologic  reasons  being 
studied;  also  instruction  concerning  the  effects  of  the  fit  of  gar- 
ments upon  habitual  positions  and  physical  development;  the 
hygiene  of  the  skin,  its  anatomy  and  physiology,  bathing,  changing 
clothing ;  dress  of  infants  and  children.  This  instruction,  including 
quizzing,  is  given  in  short  instalments  during  periods  of  monot- 
onous handwork,  when  the  pupil's  mind  can  be  occupied  with  this 
correlated  matter.  No  additional  time  is  required.  This  teacher 
believes  personal  hygiene,  cleanliness  and  neatness  can  be  taught 
still  further  in  this  way,  and  has  observed  improvements  among 
her  pupils  assuring  her  of  its  value. 

In  the  very  great  majority  of  sewing  classes,  such  instruction 
if  attempted  is  much  less.  The  question  "How  far  do  you  teach 
the  hygiene  of  dress?"  often  received  a  blank  response,  some  not 
believing  it  practicable  to  combine  the  two — as  others  are  doing. 
All  this  is  true  of  grammar  as  well  as  high  school  classes,  and  in 
grammar  grades,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  first  section  of  this 
report,  the  instruction  could  reach  nearly  three  million  children  of 
the  poorer  classes,  being  therefore  proportionately  more  important. 

1  Very  few,  perhaps  five,  "all-round"  text-books  for  children  have  been  written.  A 
larger  number  of  pamphlets,  leaflets  and  cards  are  used. 


II 

Housewifery  and  Sanitation. 

Hygiene  in  other  lines  of  domestic  science  is  taught  by  the 
experimental  method  through  the  four  years  after  the  following 
plan.  (The  two  outlines  of  high  school  courses  in  Appendix  D 
should  be  read  as  they  are  very  suggestive.) 

First  Year:  Cleanliness  in  Preparing  Food. — Canning,  pre- 
serving and  bread-making  from  a  biologic  viewpoint,  requiring 
work  with  microscope.  Hygiene  in  serving  food.  Cooking  of 
numerous  dishes  with  reference  to  flavors  and  digestibility. 
Study  of  food  classes  and  their  functions  as  nutrients.  Manu- 
facturing processes  with  reference  to  conserving  nutritive  values 
(field  work,  visiting).  Food  adulterations.  Physiology  of  diges- 
tion. Dietaries  (general).  Practice  in  marketing. 

Second  Year:  Chemistry  of  Foods,  Digestion,  Cleaning. — Food 
analyses  before  and  after  cooking;  testing  for  proteid,  starch, 
sugar.  Fermentation.  Study  of  butters,  oils,  baking  powders, 
infant  foods,  malted  foods,  preserved  foods  (tinned,  canned, 
dried)  condiments  and  sauces;  of  cleansing  agents  (washing- 
powders,  soaps,  etc.).  Study  of  digestion  by  saliva,  artificial 
gastric  and  pancreatic  fluids.  Dietaries  computed  to  supply 
the  usual  needs  of  a  man,  a  woman,  a  child,  a  student,  a  laborer. 
Menus  for  breakfasts,  luncheons,  dinners,  for  the  day,  month, 
season,  for  families  of  four  to  six ;  planned  and  single  meals  cooked. 

Third  Year:  The  Sanitary  House. — Soils,  sites,  materials, 
construction,  plans.  Building  laws.  Modern  systems  of  plumb- 
ing inspected ;  care  of  plumbing ;  tests  for  safety ;  use  of  disin- 
fectants. Inspection  of  heating  apparatus.  Methods  of  light- 
ing and  of  ventilation.  The  physics,  physiology  and  relative 
merits  involved.  Manufacture  of  coal- and  water-gas  in  detaiL 
Inspection  of  city  water  supply.  Chemical  tests.  Filtration. 
Sanitary  furnishings. 

This  year's  work  is  largely  "field  work/'  visiting  places  for 
actual  inspection. 

Fourth  Year:  Household  Biology. — Study  of  yeasts,  molds, 
bacteria;  dust,  air,  water,  milk,  by  means  of  cultures,  counting 
colonies,  etc.  Domestic  applications  of  bacteriology.  Germi- 
cides, antiseptics,  disinfectants.  Contagious  diseases.  Home 


12 

nursing,  including  preparation  of  food  for  the  sick,  and  practical 
instruction  by  a  graduate  nurse.  Home  treatment  for  simple 
accidents. 

In  another  school  visited,  under  contagious  diseases,  syphilis 
and  gonorrhoea  are  enumerated.  The  term  "venereal"  and  the 
immoral  associations  are  merely  alluded  to.  The  brief  discussion 
touches  rather  the  increase  in  society,  the  effects  upon  the  health 
of  the  individual,  upon  the  size  of  the  family,  upon  the  census, 
and  upon  descendants;  also  methods  of  communication  including 
use  of  articles  in  common  in  families,  in  public  places  and  in 
industrial  establishments.  The  very  able  man  at  the  head  of 
this  school,  while  wholly  approving  the  discussion  as  given  in  this 
department,  has  not  yet  yielded  to  earnest  requests  for  corre- 
sponding instruction  in  his  senior  class  of  young  men.  For  the 
latter  and  for  young  women  not  electing  domestic  science  he  has 
no  courses  logically  leading  to  the  subject. 


About  seventy  high  schools  offer  domestic  science  with  details 
varying  more  or  less  from  the  three  courses  presented  in  this 
report.  Perhaps  fifteen  schools  rank  with  these  in  scientific 
merit.  Only  one  pupil  in  twenty  goes  to  high  school.  Hardly 
one-quarter  of  the  pupils  in  these  seventy  schools  elect  domestic 
science,  no  boys  having  it.  In  other  words,  of  approximately 
600,000  high  school  pupils  in  the  country,  possibly  20,000  begin 
such  a  course,  possibly  6,000  finish  it. 

A   GRAMMAR  COURSE. 

There  is  as  great  a  chasm  between  high  and  grammar  schools 
in  the  quality  of  this  work  as  there  is  in  that  of  many  other  de- 
partments,1 a  chasm  not  due  to  a  corresponding  hiatus  in  mental 
capacity  at  these  ages,  but  rather  to  the  inferior  standards  of 
school  boards  and  superintendents  for  the  appointment  of  teachers. 
To  this  general  statement  there  are  a  few  exceptions,  and  one  of 
the  exceptional  courses  in  domestic  science  is  chosen  to  demon- 
strate what  can  be  done. 

Sewing  is  offered  in  more  schools  than  is  cooking  probably 

1  It  seems  unreasonable,  short-sighted,  even  tragic.    Its  extent  and  significance  can 
hardly  be  realized  except  by  a  tour  of  inspection  in  one's  own  city  at  least. 


13 

because  the  outfit  is  less  expensive.  Cooking  is  found  in  the 
majority  of  grammar  schools  in  about  100  cities  for  girls  of  the 
two  (usually)  or  three  higher  grades.  In  four  cities  visited  boys 
also  were  in  one  or  both  of  these  classes  by  choice.  They  wanted 
cooking  "for  camping  out,"  or  "to  help  when  mother  is  sick." 
Boys  take  this  course  in  the  elementary  school  of  Chicago  Uni- 
versity and  in  some  other  private  schools.  As  a  laboratory  of 
applied  sciences  and  arts  some  educators  consider  it  invaluable 
in  the  elementary  training  of  both  sexes,  and  that  there  is  every 
reason  why  boys  should  have  at  least  portions  of  this  course. 
Their  interest  is  keen.  For  them  "manual  training"  (usually 
woodwork)  is  considered  an  equivalent  by  some.  At  this  point  a 
controversy  between  educators  exists  which  will  be  touched  on 
only  so  far  as  essential  to  the  understanding  of  the  committee's 
special  subject.1 

In  domestic  science  in  grammar  grades  there  are  two  marked 
tendencies  that  physicians  should  be  alive  to.  One  is  to  make  it 
"manual  training"  simply  (or  chiefly),  under  the  man  at  the  head 
of  the  wood  and  iron  work  for  boys.  In  these  cases,  with  few  or 
no  exceptions,  the  "supervision"  is  of  the  finances  (expenditures, 
salaries,  etc.)  of  the  department,  while  the  actual  details  of 
teaching,  scientific  or  manual,  are  practically  unsupervised,  each 
teacher  working  as  she  sees  fit,  possibly  in  some  general  plan 
with  others  by  mutual  agreement. 

The  other  trend  is  to  make  domestic  science  a  department  of 
applied  sciences  and  arts,  under  a  scientifically  qualified  super- 
visor, for  the  promotion  of  more  wholesome  living  and  higher 
citizenship.  It  is  for  physicians  to  decide  how  they  will  use  their 
influence  in  their  own  communities.  Educated  women  and 
trained  specialists  are  among  those  working  with  foresight  and 
wisdom  toward  the  latter  end,  appreciating  the  value  of  raising 
home-making  to  higher  planes  of  intellectual  as  well  as  of  manual 
accomplishments . 

1  The  committee's  investigation  was  undertaken  in  total  ignorance  of  the  controver- 
sies alluded  to.  But  the  many  surprising  demonstrations  of  differences  in  excellence  at 
last  forced  conclusions  that  have  been  corroborated  by  later  reading  of  educational  authori- 
ties and  by  personal  communications.  Practically  (politically?)  it  is  a  question  of  who 
shall  supervise  departments  of  domestic  science. 


14 

The  following  outline  is  for  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils, 
10-14  years,  under  a  general  supervisor  who  upholds  the  idea  of 
applied  sciences,  and  the  course  receives  additional  encourage- 
ment from  active  public  sentiment.  Under  such  circumstances, 
it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  teachers  are  chosen  with  special 
discrimination.  In  this  school  there  was  but  one  child  of  Ameri- 
can parentage,  the  others  being  Jews  and  Italians  from  the 
poorest  wards. 

On  entering  the  class  room  each  donned  a  clean  white  apron 
(whose  laundering  she  had  been  responsible  for  at  home)  covering 
dress  and  arms,  and  white  cap  over  braids  and  curls,  pinning  her 
hand  towel  on  her  shoulder.  They  had  been  made  in  her  sewing 
course.  After  scrubbing  hands  each  presented  them  to  the  in- 
structor for  inspection,  and  if  nails  and  skin  were  not  exquisitely 
clean  even  from  ink  spots,  as  well  as  some  other  details  of  toilet, 
she  stepped  back  to  make  them  so  before  being  "passed."  But 
three  in  the  class  of  twenty-one  "failed"  (it  had  been  a  month  in 
training).  These  honestly  supposed  the  hands  submitted  after 
so-called  washing  were  clean,  and  one  "failed"  three  times.  The 
incident  illustrates  the  vagueness  of  this  first  essential  idea  in 
practical  hygiene  and  suggests  the  value  of  mere  recitations  about 
cleanliness  to  children  whose  homes  do  not  supplement  the  school. 

The  routine  continued  is  as  follows:  The  teacher  inspects 
each  child's  individual  dish  wiper,  cloth,  utensils  and  desk  for 
spotlessness  and  other  details  of  cleanliness  and  orderliness  before 
she  is  dismissed ;  and  the  meaning  of  honesty  in  work  as  well  as  of 
consistency  in  cleanliness,  through  her  clear  eyes  and  sweet 
voiced  "Do  you  think  that  is  right?  No?  Then  do  it  right" 
impresses  character  as  well  as  standards  of  living.  Only  a  visit 
after  two  years  of  such  training  discloses  to  what  degree.  Then 
we  find  a  pretty  neatness,  accuracy  and  intelligence — a  mental 
awakening — replacing  the  earlier  slovenliness  and  vacant  ex- 
pression. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  a  number  of  such  classes  in  different 
cities  to  appreciate  where  the  teaching  of  household  sanitation  must 
begin ;  to  properly  value  the  above  and  following  details  and  what  they 
stand  for  in  the  course,  and  in  the  life  of  the  community. 


15 

The  smoothly  finished  floor,  the  windows,  sash  curtains,  wood- 
work, cupboards,  refrigerator,  stoves  and  range,  brass  pipes  and 
faucets,  copper  boiler  and  all  parts  of  the  room  as  well  as  all 
utensils  are  kept  bright,  spotless,  dustless,  week  after  week 
through  the  two  years  by  the  little  house-keepers,  while  in  cook- 
ing they  practise  handling  food  with  equal  mindfulness  of  dirt, 
dust  and  flies  as  germ-carriers.  The  lesson  of  harmful  bacteria 
is  enforced  by  the  painful  cut,  scratch,  bruise  or  burn — there  are 
always  examples  at  hand,  when  unclean  hands  or  bandages  allow 
germs  to  make  trouble.  In  this  connection  what  to  do  in  simple 
emergencies  is  learned. 

The  contrast  between  these  kitchens  from  odorless  garbage 
pail  to  dainty  "dining  room"  and  kitchens  where  cooking — the 
chief  "manual  training"  idea — predominates  is  as  marked  as  is 
the  difference  in  intellectual  exercises  in  the  two  methods.  This 
routine  work  and  inspection  are  as  faithfully  carried  out  in  the 
last  month  of  the  two  years  as  in  the  first.  The  instructor  be- 
lieves that  not  a  few  lessons  but  constant  observance  of  these 
fundamental  details  of  cleanliness  during  these  years  is  essential 
to  learning  the  lesson ;  and  that  it  produces  results  in  the  '  'making 
of  an  American"  which  often  affect  homes  of  the  second  genera- 
tion even  more  than  those  of  the  immigrants  themselves. 

From  cleanliness  in  person  and  house  work  they  pass  to  the 
practice  and  simple  theory  of  ventilation,  of  pasteurizing  milk, 
sterilizing  water,  canning  fruits  and  preserving  foods  free  from 
harmful  bacteria.  They  are  simply  instructed  about  germ  life; 
they  have  a  microscope  for  yeast  and  starch  cells.  With  simple 
contrivances  they  collect  CO2  in  fermentation,  see  its  effects  on 
combustion  and  learn  its  connection  with  respiration. 

Cooking  lessons  are  continually  accompanied  with  comments 
and  questions  designed  to  fix  elementary  knowledge  of  food 
principles,  digestion,  nutrition,  by  frequent  repetition  and  ex- 
periments. Pupils  easily  use  the  iodine  test  for  starch,  and  test 
its  digestion  by  saliva.  They  learn  the  heat  test  for  albumen 
while  cooking  eggs  and  meat,  the  acid  precipitation  of  casein 
while  studying  milk,  and  details  by  which  to  roughly  estimate 
the  quality  of  milks,  butters,  flours,  etc.  They  find  litmus  paper 


i6 

and  household  acids  and  alkalis  quite  as  interesting  as  the  capitals 
of  Asiatic  countries,  and  the  qualities  of  C,  O,  H  and  N  more 
fascinating  than  square  or  cube  roots.  Is  knowledge  of  them 
less  useful  in  the  conduct  of  life?  Or  the  mental  discipline  of 
acquiring  it  narrower? 

The  general  principles  of  hygiene  in  eating  and  drinking,  and 
combinations  of  foods  to  suit  families,  adults  and  children,  are 
repeatedly  taught  by  practice  and  discussion,  as  are  the  refine- 
ments of  eating  and  drinking.  The  avoidance  of  alcoholic  drinks 
and  tobacco  for  hygienic  and  economic  reasons  is  taught.1  Finally 
there  are  a  few  drills  in  bedmaking,  bathing,  making  poultices 
and  other  care  of  the  sick. 

In  the  two  years  course  fully  120  simple  dishes  are  prepared 
by  each  child  one  receipt  being  often  used  with  intelligent  modifica- 
tions to  fix  the  principles  in  mind.  Reports  of  cooking  at  home 
are  asked  for.  The  pupils  have  actual  practice  in  selecting  good 
materials  in  market,  while  clean  markets,  pure  food  ideas,  honest 
milkmen,  city  health  regulations  and  clean  streets  and  yards  are 
also  often  called  to  the  attention.  They  are  taught  by  practice 
and  theory  not  to  scatter  dust  in  the  house  or  out  of  windows 
when  it  can  be  washed  away  or  burnt  up,  not  to  sweep  houses 
into  streets,  not  to  throw  refuse  of  any  kind  into  yards  or  street. 
Contagion  is  explained,  and  the  avoidance  of  common  use  of 
articles  and  personal  contact  are  practised  understandingly. 

They  use  no  text-books,  but  occasional  printed  slips  are  system- 
atically inserted  in  note-books  opposite  the  child's  written  notes 
on  his  "laboratory  work"  on  the  same  subject. 

TENDENCIES  TO   POOR  WORK. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  this  committee  to  indicate 
in  what  directions  tendencies  to  poor  work  exist.  While  this 
class  of  details  is  being  reviewed  the  consistently  honest  capable 
work  illustrated  in  the  foregoing  should  be  remembered. 

The  scantiness  of  scientific  details,  is  often  excused  on  the 
ground  that  thrifty  but  uneducated  parents  judge  the  worth  of 
the  course  by  the  amount  of  cooking  children  can  do  to  lessen  the 
labor  of  the  housekeeper;  another  excuse  is,  "Children  won't 

1  See  Mrs.  Hall's  remarks  in  discussion  following  this  paper. 


17 

come  if  they  can't  cook  something  they  like  to  eat;"  another 
reason  is  evidently  the  limitations  of  the  instructor;  another,  a 
fundamental  reason  for  the  majority  of  the  shortcomings,  is  lack 
of  supervision  of  the  department  corresponding  in  efficiency  to  that 
given  the  "three  Rs."  Very  few  if  any  school  superintendents 
know  the  rudiments  of  housewifery  or  of  the  chemistry  of  foods ; 
very  few  if  any  men  giving  instruction  in  wood  and  iron  work 
to  boys  know  it.  Where  the  work  is  thoroughly  well  done  in- 
variably a  scientific  person  is  the  moving  influence,  official  or 
otherwise.  A  scientifically  trained  woman  is  supervisor  in  many 
such  places. 

In  classes  of  cooking  with  the  "manual  training  idea"  upper- 
most the  chief  emphasis  is  placed  upon  memorizing  receipts  and 
prices  of  ingredients,  preserving  these  in  note-books,  and  cooking 
each  year  60  (approximately)  dishes,  or  seeing  the  teacher  cook 
them,  afterwards  cooking  them  at  home  and  reporting  at  roll- 
call.  A  small  amount  of  instruction  in  hygiene  and  in  "reasons 
why"  is  subordinated  to  the  above.  Much  less  attention  is  given 
to  either  the  theory  or  practice  of  cleanliness.  Not  infrequently 
(but  not  always)  grimy  hands  and  black  finger-nails,  flying  hair 
and  a  roller  towel  for  50  pupils  are  found.  Dusty  furnishings, 
cloudy  windows,  tarnished  metal  wear,  and  floors  with  ripples 
of  dirt  are  part  of  the  environment  inconsistent  with  teaching 
cleanliness  and  hygiene,  as  are  flies  on  uncovered  food  supplies, 
carelessly  scattered  crumbs,  odorous  garbage  pail,  neglected 
dish  towels  and  cloths.  The  cleanliness  of  the  table  and  cooking 
utensils  is  usually  attended  to,  with  more  or  less  thoroughness. 

In  schools  where  the  chief  object  is  to  learn  to  cook,  logically 
it  is  a  desideratum  to  learn  to  cook  as  many  dishes  as  possible. 
The  length  of  the  period  may  be  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  hours.1 
The  rush  to  cook  a  number  of  dishes  in  that  time  adds  to  the 
superficiality  of  the  work  and  of  the  teaching.  In  one  city  it 
was  a  matter  of  pride  that  every  school  was  cooking  the  same  dish 
at  the  same  time  throughout  the  city,  and  that  90  (?)  receipts 
would  be  cooked  during  the  year.  Such  a  pressure  from  authorities 
was  felt  that  several  teachers  gave  their  instruction  with  such 

1  Once  or  twice  weekly. 


i8 

rapidity  it  would  be  wholly  impossible  to  retain  it.  However, 
pupils  were  expected  to  retain  chiefly  receipts  and  prices  and  they 
were  written  on  the  blackboard.  In  several  cities  the  food  cooked 
is  gobbled  "on  the  run"  instead  of  being  used  to  teach  the  hygiene 
of  serving  and  eating. 

Some  of  these  faults  are  sometimes  quite  as  much  or  more  due 
to  higher  authorities  than  the  instructor.  Some  teachers  rec- 
ognize them  acutely  but  believe  themselves  helpless  except  as 
they  resign  their  positions. 

Misstatements  of  Facts. 

To  illustrate  another  not  infrequent  line  of  poor  work  the  fol- 
lowing are  selected  as  somewhat  typical  uncertainties  as  to  facts. 

(1)  "A  child  of  100  pounds  weight  takes  one-half  pound  food 
daily." 

(2)  "A  child  of   loo  pounds  weight  takes  two  and  one-half 
pounds  food  daily  and  three  pints  of  drink." 

(3)  Copied  from  blackboard ; '  'The  nutritive  part  of  meat  is 
albumin  or  casein." 

Heard  in  same  class  in  explanation  of  the  preliminary  searing 
of  broiling  steak;  "This  white  coat  is  because  the  heat  has 
coagulated  the  casein." 

(4)  "Cabbage  and  cauliflower  are  very  nutritious  because  they 
contain  much  gluten." 

(5)  "Cabbage  contains  less  than  2  per  cent,  of  proteid  material 
and  is  not  very  nutritious." 

(6)  "Cellulose  is  of  no  use  in  the  body"  (frequently  heard). 

(7)  "Starches,  sugars  and  fats  furnish  energy  and  heat  but  do 
not  build  tissue"  (frequently  heard). 

(8)  "Proteids  build  tissue  but  do  not  furnish  energy  and  heat" 
(more  often  taught  correctly). 

(9)  "Teacher,  is  there  any  carbon  in  milk?" 
Hesitatingly,  "Perhaps.    Why?" 

"'Cause  I  burned  some  and  it  turned  brown." 
Uncertainly,   "Well,  perhaps  there  is.     A  little." 
Same  class:  "Milk  contains  a  proteid.     It  is  albumen,  which 
you  see  in  the  thickened  scum  on  the  top  of  boiled  milk." 

( 10)  '  'The  thickened  layer  is  simply  the  dried  top  of  the  hot  milk." 


19 

Number  nine,  a  general  teacher  and  unusually  able  pedagogicly, 
had  forgotten  casein,  and  illustrates  not  only  the  misfortune 
of  superficial  preparation  in  science,  but  the  not  uncommon 
failing  of  refusing  to  admit  inability  to  answer  a  question.  The 
true  scientific  spirit  was  seen  in  a  biologist  in  a  grammar  school 
who  replied,  "I  don't  know.  You  try  to  find  out  to-night  and 
111  try,  and  to-morrow  we'll  talk  it  over/'  The  latter  cultivates 
not  only  the  scientific  spirit — which  is  love  of  truth — but  con- 
fidence in  herself. 

If  an  instructor  taught  that  Nashville  is  the  capital  of  Alabama, 
or  that  one-half  of  one-sixth  is  one-third  the  whole  personality 
would  bear  ear  marks  corresponding  to  such  illiteracy  easily  per- 
ceived by  the  average  superintendent.  An  up-to-date  super- 
intendent, with  scientific  as  well  as  literary  training,  *.  e.,  with  an 
"all-round"  education,  could  with  equal  ease  gauge  the  ineffi- 
ciency of  the  science  "crammed"  teacher.  That  such  super- 
intendents and  supervisors  are  occasionally  lacking  is  evident. 

Significance. 

The  general  significance  of  these  typical  illustrations  of  poor 
work  is: 

In  some  instances  that  normal  training  (whether  state,  institute 
or  college)  is  not  as  thorough  as  it  should  be; 

In  some  instances  that  the  instructor  has  not  a  mind  adapted 
to  teaching  science; 

In  all  instances  that  the  superintendent  or  supervisor  is  not 
equal  to  his  or  her  duties ; 

In  all  instances  that  public  demand  for  the  teaching  of  domestic 
science  exceeds  the  supply  of  good  teachers  and  (or)  the  capacity 
of  municipal  school  committeemen. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

The  outlines  of  typical  good  courses  demonstrate : 

(1)  That  hygiene  and  sanitation  are  taught  many  girls  and  a 
few  boys  down  to  u  years  of  age,  not  less  efficiently  than  arith- 
metic. 

(2)  That  their  practice  is  as  definitely  enforced  in  these  years 
as  the  correct  doing  of  "sums,"  while  the  underlying  principles 


20 

are  quite  as  likely  to  be  applied  in  after  life  to  a  not  less  degree 
in  hygiene  than  in  mathematics — such  application  being  of  equal 
importance. 

(3)  That  intelligent  interest  in  public  sanitation,  such  as  water 
supplies,  milk  inspection,  pure  food  laws,  clean  streets,  is  practi- 
cally cultivated  in  logical  connection  with  domestic  life  and  the 
individual. 

(4)  That  with  pupils  of  high  school  ages  syphilis  and  gonorrhoea 
are  discussed  in  their  normal  grouping  with  contagions,  without 
emotionalism,  and  for  the  practical  purpose  of  conserving  health, 
parenthood  and  clean  inheritance  both  for  individuals  and  in  the 
nation. 

(5)  That  all  the  foregoing  is  built  upon  a  basis  of  rudimentary 
physics,  chemistry  and  biology,  experience  or  demonstration  re- 
inforcing the  exclusive  memory  system. 

If  a  certain  few  leading  cities  are  finding  the  time,  the  money, 
the  ability  to  conduct  this  department  with  the  above  degree  of 
excellence,  while  unquestionably  maintaining  a  high  standard  in 
the  usual  subjects  regarded  as  essential,  eventually  all  can. 


Nature  Study  Courses. 

Numerous  high  schools  have  well  equipped  laboratories  for 
physics,  chemistry,  botany,  zoology,  or  biology.  Their  courses 
vary  in  excellence.  Their  possibilities  for  teaching  physiology, 
hygiene  and  sanitation  are  evident. 

Because  the  general  program  in  physics  and  chemistry  is 
familiar  to  physicians,  this  report  omits  details  (some  of  which 
are  indicated  in  the  report  on  domestic  science)  with  the  general 
statement  that  there  is  a  slowly  growing  tendency  to  introduce 
modern  problems  in  the  chemistry  of  physiology  and  of  sanitation 
(especially  water,  food  and  milk  supplies),  and  to  study  physical 
laws  through  their  definite  applications  in  household  and  munici- 
pal sanitary  methods.  There  is  no  doubt  that  both  tendencies 
can  be  accelerated  by  suggestions  and  encouragement  from 
physicians,  particularly  medical  inspectors  and  other  health 
officers. 


21 


In  laboratories  of  botany,  zoology,  or  biology  the  opportunities 
for  teaching  human  anatomy  and  physiology  with  a  compre- 
hensive outlook  are  constant;  also  for  study  of  germ-life  and  of 
insects  in  relation  to  contagions,  prevention  and  other  biologic 
problems  of  disease,  hygiene  and  sanitation.  In  many  of  the 
schools  visited  these  topics  are  considered  more  or  less  definitely 
according  to  the  capacity  or  interest  of  the  instructors.  Here  again 
professional  encouragement  can  strengthen  the  tendency. 

Because  of  limitations  of  space  this  report  will  not  discuss  in 
detail  the  above  features  of  these  courses,  but  instead  pass  to 
another  phase  of  the  instruction  that  has  been  attempted  in  public 
schools  only  since  biology  and  the  study  of  cells  has  been  de- 
veloped as  the  common  basis  of  all  plant  and  animal  study. 

DIFFICULTIES  IN  TEACHING  REPRODUCTION. 

The  instruction  of  children  in  laws  of  reproduction  of  living 
organisms  and  in  immediately  related  topics  is  of  great  present 
concern  to  physicians  and  importance  to  society. 

Public  education  until  now  has  attempted  to  give  the  pupil  a 
limited  view  of  only  the  first  of  the  two  primary  laws  of  life — 
perfection  of  the  individual.  The  chief  practical  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  teaching  the  second — reproduction  of  the  individual 
the  public  schools  find  to  be  three. 

(i)  Many  children,  probably  the  majority  in  cities,  from 
grammar  grades  (sometimes  primary)  up  have  minds  already 
pre-possessed  with  information  so  incomplete  and  so  associated 
with  ideas  of  immodesty  and  concealment,  or  of  vulgarity  and 
vice,  that  many  instructors  can  see  no  way  of  clearing  their  minds 
that  will  not  make  thoughts,  conversation  and  even  actions 
worse.  A  class  of  instructors,  not  official  but  working  in  public 
places  other  than  the  schools,  assist  this  education  by  sending 
literature  and  pictures  through  the  mail  to  children  whose  names 
they  have  learned,  or  by  handing  such  to  pupils  on  their  way  to 
school,  or  by  having  some  pupil  distribute  them.  Teachers  who 
have  had  personal  experience  with  this  form  of  evil  among  their 
pupils  are  among  those  most  earnestly  hoping  for  wholesome 
instruction  to  be  made  possible,  and  most  bitterly  resenting  the 


22 

pedagogic  "shutting  the  eyes"  to  conditions  as  they  are.  Other 
teachers  with  more  or  less  experience  proving  that  ignorance  is 
not  innocence,  or  with  sufficient  information  to  appreciate  coining 
temptations  and  problems,  and  that  knowledge  of  natural  laws 
is  the  best  preservative  of  good,  earnestly  wish  their  pupils  could 
be  taught  the  subject  of  reproduction  rightly.  Others,  but  a 
minority,  express  no  opinion.  Others  maintain  that  "it  would 
make  bad  matters  worse,"  that  it  should  be  taught  at  home — 
even  if  it  is  not — even  if  guardians  are  incapable  of  it. 

(2)  Several  teachers  who  have  been  compelled  to  straighten 
out  immoral  affairs  in  upper  grammar  grades  have  had  intensely 
uncomfortable  experiences  not  with  the  children  so  much  as  with 
principals  or  superintendents  whose  practice  is  "not  to  stir  up 
such  things" — but  to  overlook  them;  or  with  certain  parents 
who  pronounced  them  "immodest,"  "untruthful,"  "unjust,"  as 
a  result  of  which,  in  spite  of  the  gratitude  of  other  parents,  and 
support  of  some  school  officials  and  physicians,  they  have  become 
profoundly  discouraged,  and  believe  adults  to  be  the  greatest  obstacle 
to  giving  the  wholesome  instruction  they  would  like  to  have 
attempted. 

(3)  Practically  all  teachers  who  are  more  or  less  concerned 
to  have  these  natural  laws  understood  by  their  pupils  are  at  a 
loss  to  know  how  it  can  be  brought  about,  or  rather  how  com- 
petent instructors  can  be  found,  for  nearly  all  are  positive  that 
the  child's  psychologic  processes  permit  its  unembarrassed  accom- 
plishment by  beginning  with  plant  and  animal  studies. 

Whether  children  themselves  taken  as  they  come  to  school,  or 
adults  with  false  standards,  or  the  incapacity  of  general  teachers 
be  the  chief  obstacles,  that  they  are  each  and  all  removable  is  demon- 
strated in  several  schools  visited  in  eighteen  cities  while  preparing 
this  report  of  methods  of  teaching  hygiene. 

HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSES  TEACHING  REPRODUCTION. 

In  the  committee's  study  of  73  recent  text-books  on  physiology 
and  hygiene  it  was  noted  that  the  anatomy,  physiology  and 
hygiene  of  the  reproductive  system  was  omitted  in  all.1 

1  Bulletin,  June,  1905. 


23 

Biologic  branches  (botany,  zoology,  biology),  with  laboratories 
and  special  instructors  in  high  schools  as  already  stated,  begin 
study  of  reproduction  with  the  single  protoplasmic  cell,  tracing 
its  increasing  complexity  step  by  step  into  the  highest  plant  and 
animal  organisms. 

Botany. 

In  several  high  schools  approximately  the  following  course  in 
botany  is  pursued,  strictly  after  the  method  of  scientific  research, 
each  boy  and  girl  having  a  problem  to  work  out  by  experiment, 
observation  and  reporting.1  The  compound  microscope  is  used 
with  facility,  also  simple  physical  and  chemical  apparatus  and 
reagents.  Each  plant  is  studied  under  three  heads:  (i)  vegeta- 
tive stage;  (2)  reproductive  stage;  (3)  life  problems.  The  plan 
was  introduced  with  long  foresight.  The  obstacles  to  be  over- 
come are  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  topic  "reproduction" 
throughout  the  book  caused  some  consternation  among  a  few 
parents  and  in  school  committee.  The  instructors'  wisdom 
finally  prevailed. 

(i)  Pleurococcus,  Nostoc  or  Oscillaria. 

(A)  Vegetative  and  reproductive  stages. 

(1)  With  low  and  high  powers  study  plants  which  have 
been  properly  mounted.     What  is  the  size,  color,  and  form 
of  plant? 

(2)  The  exterior  covering  of  the  cell  is  the  cell  wall; 
important  contents  are  the  nucleus  and  cytoplasm,  which 
together    constitute    protoplasm.      The    green    coloring- 
matter  of  plants  is  chlorophyl.     Which  of  these  are  present 
in  the  specimen? 

(3)  Does  an  individual  plant  consist  of  one  or  more 
cells? 

(4)  Are  the  cells  alike?     If  not,  how  do  they  differ? 

(5)  What  evidence  is  there  of  growth  and  reproduction'?2 

(6)  What  is  the  arrangement  and  relation  of  the  new  plant 
cells'? 

(7)  Make   drawings:  (a)  an   individual   plant   and  des- 

1  The  full  outline  is  found  in  Studies  of  Plant  Life  by  Pepoon,  Mitchel  and  Maxwell. 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.    The  authors  have  departments  of  biology  in  Chicago  high  schools. 

2  All  italics  in  this  outline  are  ours.— Com. 


24 

ignate  all  of  its  parts ;  (6)  other  plants  of  smaller  or  larger 
size ;  (c)  stages  of  reproduction. 

(8)  What  is  the  general  appearance  of  the  plant  in  its 
place  of  growth? 

(9)  Some  plants  are  inclosed  in  a  jelly-like  substance. 
Is  this  present? 

(10)  Make  a  tabulated  comparison  of  these  three  forms 
according  to  the  following  scheme? 


Name. 

Color. 

Size. 

Shape  of 
cell. 

Cell  arrange- 
ment. 

Reproduc- 
tion. 

Other 
features. 

(B)  Life  problems. 

(1)  Where  are  each  of  these  plants  found? 

(2)  Why  is  it  found  in  such  places  ? 

(3)  What  is  the  significance  of  the  green  color? 

(4)  What  is  its  food  and  how  does  it  eat?  (Experiments 
to  show  the  necessity  of  water,  of  soil  salts,  of  O  and  of 
CO2;  and  to  show  turgor  and  explain  osmosis). 

(5)  Why  is  it  so  widely  distributed? 

(6)  How  does  reproduction  occur?     Why? 

(7)  How  does  growth  take  place? 

A  thoughtful  glance  through  these  details  for  the  study  of 
plants  from  the  unicellar  to  the  most  complicated  is  very  sug- 
gestive. After  like  fashion  a  progressive  series  is  studied.  The 
details  of  the  study  of  reproduction  only  are  quoted  under  a  few. 

(2)  Yeast  Plants  and  Bacteria. 

(3)  Spirogyra  or  Zygnema. 

(B)  Reproductive  stage. 

(1)  How  is  the  filament  increased  in  length?  (Vegetative 
growth.) 

(2)  Is  the  filament  one  or  several  individual  plants? 

(3)  With  low  and  high  powers  study  adjacent  filaments 
with  connecting  (conjugating)  tubes,  also  any  variations 
in  cell  content.    The   union   of  two  protoplasmic  bodies 


25 

(gametes)  which  are  similar  is  conjugation,  and  the  re- 
sulting body  is  a  zygospore. 

(4)  How  does  the  color  of  the  conjugating  filaments 
differ  from  that  of  the  vegetative  stage  ? 

(5)  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  different  stages  of  this 
process  and  designate  all  parts. 

(4)  A  Mold. 

(5)  Vaucheria. 

(B)  Reproductive  stage. 

(1)  How  many  kinds  of  branches  are  there? 

(2)  What  is  their  relation  to  the  main  filament? 

(3)  How  do  the  distal  ends  of  the  branches  compare? 

(4)  The  elongated,  more  or  less  curved  branches  are 
spermaries  and  the  somewhat  spherical  ones  are  ovaries. 
How  are  they  related  to  each  other? 

(5)  Are  transverse  partitions  (septa)  to  be  found?    Why? 

(6)  Is  there  any  opening  in  either  spermary  or  ovary? 
If  so,  where  and  why? 

(7)  At  the  distal  ends  of  some  filaments  are  enlarge- 
ments which  produce  one  or  more  motile  bodies  (zoospores). 
Are  they  to  be  found  and  what  do  they  become? 

(8)  Make   drawings  showing  reproductive   stages,   and 
designate  all  parts. 

(6)  A  Water  Mold. 

(7)  Rockweed. 

(8)  A  Lichen. 

(9)  A  Mushroom  or  "  Toadstool." 

(10)  A  Stonewort. 

(B)  Reproductive  stage. 

(1)  With  microscope  observe  the  form  and  color  of  the 
fruiting  structures,    a   spherical  one    (spermary),    and   a 
somewhat  flask-shaped  organ   (ovary).     Where  are  they 
situated? 

(2)  Observe  the  relative  position  of  the  spermary  and 
ovary.     What  significance  may  this  arrangement  have? 

(3)  Study  the  spermary  with  low  power  and  observe  the 


26 

large  cells  (shields)  that  make  up  its  wall.     How  are  they 
arranged  ?     Sketch . 

(4)  Crush  a  spermary  and  study  its  contents.     Observe 
the  tangled  threads  (spermatic  filaments)  sometimes  with 
small    lash-like    cells    within     (male    gametes).     Sketch 
filaments. 

(5)  Study  the  ovary  and  observe  the  details  of  structure. 

(6)  The  inclosed  large  cell  is  an  egg  (female  gamete). 
The  protective  cells  which  cover  it  are  cortical  cells.     How 
are  they  arranged  and  how  do  they  terminate?    Sketch 
and  designate  all  parts. 

The  foregoing  study  of  algae  and  fungi  is  finished  with  a 
tabulated  comparison  summarized  under  the  heads,  name,  habitat 
color,  structure,  reproduction,  life  habit,  food,  economic  im- 
portance, characteristic  parts  and  drawings.  Among  the  general 
questions  are :  How  and  why  do  water  algae  assume  a  filamentous 
form?  Spore  production  is  of  what  advantage  to  a  plant?  Why 
do  some  plants  have  asexual  as  well  as  sexual  spores? 

(n)  A  Liverwort. 

(12)  A  Moss  Plant. 

(13)  A  Fern  Plant. 

(14)  An  Equisetum. 

(15)  A  Lycopod. 

(16)  The  Pine.    A  gymnosperm. 

(17)  An  Angiosperm. 

(C)  Reproductive  shoots  (flowers). 

(5)  The  essential  parts  are  the  stamens  within  the  petals 
and  one  or  more  pistils  each  consisting  of  one  or  more 
carpels. 

(6)  Does  each  flower  contain  stamens  and  pistils?     If 
so,  they  are  perfect.     But  if  not,  are  the  imperfect  flowers 
on  the  same  or  different  plants ?    Why? 

(8)  Study  the  number,  length  (relative),  and  arrange- 
ment of  stamens.     Draw  and  designate  the  parts  of  a 
stamen,  also  any  variation  in  length  and  union,  if  apparent. 

(9)  Study  the  number,  form,  and  arrangement  of  the 
pistils.     If  more   than  one,  are   they  entirely  separate? 


27 

Draw  (a)  a  pistil ;  (6)  sectional  views  of  the  ovulary,  show- 
ing one  or  more  ovule  chambers  and  the  placenta  of  the 
ovules. 

Next  follows  a  detailed  study  of  seeds,  seedlings  and  germina- 
tion; roots  and  their  modifications;  leaves  and  their  modifications; 
flowers  ("reproductive  shoots")  and  some  modifications,  and  in- 
cluding pollenation,  the  ways  of  accomplishing  and  devices  therefor, 
self-pollenation,  cross-pollenation,  experiments  in  the  production  of 
varieties;  fruits  with  devices  for  dissemination  of  seeds.1 

This  outline  is  a  meagre  suggestion  of  the  rich  field  of  thought 
which  the  naturalist  opens  by  his  supplementary  questions  and 
information  in  the  laboratory  and  on  field  trips.  The  likeness 
between  life  processes  in  all  classes  even  in  matters  of  heredity 
(degeneration,  and  the  preservation  of  desired  features)  and 
environment  are  discussed  by  the  pupils  with  spontaneous  interest, 
frankness  and  refreshing  good  sense.  In  the  study  of  bacteria, 
some  instructors  were  ably  using  the  opportunity  to  discuss  prob- 
lems of  public  health  relating  to  contagions,  milk,  water  and 
food  supplies,  etc.,  and  intending  to  increase  this  study. 

Zoology  and  Biology. 

Zoology  and  biology  in  competent  hands  develop  the  study  of 
animal  reproduction  (beginning  with  protozoa).  Dissections  of 
embryos  are  made ;  the  laying  of  eggs  and  birth  of  young  like  the 
parents  are  seen  in  aquariums  and  vivariums,  marine  and  amphib- 
eous  animals,  insects  and  birds  being  the  material  commonly 
studied. 

The  tendency  in  recent  text-books  and  in  the  classroom  work 
observed  is  clearly  toward  "comparative  science,"  utilizing  this 
biologic  work  on  lower  forms  to  teach  human  biology.  The 
question  was  asked  nine  specialists  in  botany,  zoology  and  biology : 
"Do  you  think  it  desirable  to  carry  this  teaching  more  definitely 
into  human  reproduction,  social  diseases,  etc.?"  They  were 
unanimous  in  thinking  it  desirable,  but  had  varying  opinions 
as  to  the  possibility. 

1  Experiments  are  performed  on  starches,  oils,  nitrogenous  substances ;  on  digestion, 
circulation,  respiration,  chemical  changes  by  light,  transpiration,  root  pressure;  on 
problems  in  evaporation,  heat  production,  irritability,  etc.,— all  with  reference  to  plants. 


28 

In  two  classes  (different  cities)  it  is  done  for  girls,  medical 
women  concluding  the  courses  with  three  or  four  lectures  on 
menstruation,  pregnancy,  child-birth,  care  of  the  new-born ;  and 
general  consideration  of  the  institution  of  the  family,  heredity, 
''the  social  evil,"  and  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  habits,  the 
last  three  topics  being  treated  from  a  sociologic  as  well  as  physi- 
ologic view-point.  For  one  class  this  teaching  has  been  satis- 
factorily given  two  years ;  for  the  other,  five  years. 

No  classes  visited  except  the  one  to  be  described  undertake 
this  for  boys.  Some  of  the  difficulties  were  noted  as  follows: 
"Doctors  are  not  scientific  enough;"  it  was  always  agreed  that 
instructors  themselves  do  not  feel  equal  to  it.  "Doctors  don't 
understand  the  pupils'  minds;"  "don't  know  how  to  teach;" 
"are  too  technical"  (professionally,  not  biologicly,  was  meant); 
"don't  realize  the  scientific  preparation  the  pupils  have  had;" 
"are  not  tactful;"  "are  not  definite  enough."  "  Probably  there 
are  doctors  who  know  how,  but  I  don't  know  any."  The  dangers 
(of  unwise  presentation)  were  said  to  be  of  offending,  making 
morbid  or  immoral  the  pupils,  or  of  shocking  parents. 

The  essence  of  this  distrust  seems  to  be  that  the  practitioner 
of  medicine  is  difficult  to  find  who  is  prepared  or  will  take  the 
time  to  prepare  to  present  the  subject  of  human  reproduction 
and  allied  topics  after  the  biologic  method  to  which  the  pupils 
are  accustomed.  One  biologist  said:  "In  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  I  try  to  help  young  men  to  an  understand- 
ing of  social  diseases,  but  I  don't  dare  present  it  as  it  should  be 
to  any  but  the  boys  who  have  had  biology  with  me  in  high  school. 
Why?  Because  they  won't  take  it  right." 

Reproduction  Taught  by  Another  Biologist. 

Another  biologist  had  16  pupils  from  13  to  15  years  old  in 
zoology.  They  were  sun-browned  healthy  children  in  a  small 
city,  doing  field  work  and  their  own  collecting,  and  caring  for  the 
school  garden,  their  "outdoor  laboratory."  They  had,  when 
visited,  just  finished  recording  very  careful  studies  of  pigeon  and 
grasshopper,  and  were  engaged  on  paramoecium,  vorticella  and 
eudendrium  ramosum.  Each  had  a  Bausch  &  Lomb  student's 
microscope  and  dissecting  microscope,  and  worked  independently. 


29 

The  laboratory  had  numerous  growing  specimens,  not  the  least 
interesting  of  which  (to  the  pupils)  was  a  cage  of  rabbits  with 
young  an  hour  old.  There  was  a  small  museum. 

The  method  of  studying  was  through  field  work  to  observe 
habits  and  habitat;  observations  of  animals  in  the  laboratory; 
dissections,  drawings  in  notes  and  on  blackboard,  descriptions; 
close  and  logical  quizzing  and  talks  from  instructor;  the  study  of 
blackboard  diagrams  in  morphology  and  anatomy,  and  of  museum 
specimens  when  necessary  fresh  material  could  not  be  obtained. 
Frequent  "theses"  were  written  on  the  animals  studied,  and 
these  with  note-books  were  faithfully  criticized  to  each  pupil. 
This  unquestionably  accounts  for  the  scientific  tone  of  a  group 
of  15  papers  received  by  the  Academy's  committee,  extracts 
from  which  are  given  with  this  report. 

These  papers,  sent  without  any  corrections,  were  written 
simply  as  a  review  exercise  in  four  days'  periods  (eight hours), 
with  freedom  to  study  between  times,  but  with  no  assistance 
whatever  from  the  instructor  beyond  the  following  outline  on  the 
blackboard. 

"THE  REPRODUCTION  OF  ANIMAW. 

"  I.  What  phenomena  are  inevitable  in  the  life  of  every  animal? 

"  2.  How  does  reproduction  compare  with  growth  in  importance? 

"3.  Describe  reproduction  in  the  Protozoa. 

"4.        "  "  "     "   Coelenterates. 

"5.        •'  "  "     "  various  phyla  up  to  and  including  the 

mammals." 

Appendix  B,  page  454,  should  be  read.     The  summary  given 
below  for  brevity  by  no  means  equals  the  original  extracts. 

SUMMARY  OF  15  PAPERS  ON  "THE  REPRODUCTION  OF  ANIMALS"  BY  PUBZJC 

SCHOOL  CHILDREN  13  TO  1 6  YEARS  OU>,  AFTER  ^  MONTHS  STUDY 

IN  A  BIOLOGIC  LABORATORY. 

Reproduction  as  essential  as  growth. 

Protozoa,  by  division  (including  spores  and  budding)  and  by 
conjugation. 

Amoeba  and  Arcella  by  division.     Asexual.     Illus- 
trations. 

Paramoecium  and    Vorticella  by  division   and  by 
conjugation  of  two  individuals.    Asexual  and  sexual. 


30 

Slightly  complex  animals,  by  division  and  by  egg  and  sperm 
cells. 

Volvox  by  egg  cells  developed  by  division  in  cavity 
of  parent;  and  by  sperm  and  egg  cells  forming  resting 
spore. 

Metazoa  by  budding  and  by  egg  and  sperm  cells.     Inverte- 
brates in  both  ways. 

(Coelenterates.) 

Hydra  by  budding  and  by  two  individuals  each 
carrying  both  egg  and  sperm  cells.  Illustrations. 

Medusa  or  Jelly-fish  by  budding  and  by  two  in- 
dividuals carrying  either  egg  or  sperm,  external  fertiliza- 
tion. Alternation  of  generations.  Illustrations. 

Sponges  by  budding  (zooids  and  gemmules),  and  by 
egg  and  sperm  cells.  Blastula  and  gastrula.  Develop- 
ment of  young  in  cavity  of  parent,  liberated  through 
mouth.  Illustrations. 

(Echinoderms) . 

Starfish,  by  male  and  female.  External  fertiliza- 
tion. Development  of  young.  Illustrations. 

(Vermes  by  egg  and  sperm>. 

Flatworm  (planaria),  hepiaphrodite.  Cloaca.  Self- 
fertilization.  Eggs  Jaid.  Illustrations. 

Earthworm,  hej^iaphrodite.  Cross-fertilization.  Eggs 
laid  in  case.  Illustrations.  , 

Tapeworm  and'  liver  fluke,  each  segment  hemaph- 
roditic.  Parasites.  Eggs  laid.  Illustrations. 

Trichina,  eggs  laid  in  host. 

Vinegar  eel,  viviparous. 

(Mollusca,  egg  and  sperm  by  different  individuals.) 

Fresh  water  clam,  egg  and  sperm  organs  in  foot. 
Eggs  hatch  under  gills.  Development  of  young. 

Nautilus,  testis,  sperm  ducts,  vesicula  seminalis, 
spermatophore  and  sac,  penis,  ovary  and  oviducts. 
Illustrations  from  museum  specimen. 

(Arthropoda,  male  and  female.  Brood  pouches  for 
fertilized  egg  or  for  embryo.) 


Cray  fish,  ovary,  spermary,  and  ducts.  Eggs  laid 
and  fertilized  on  swimming  feet.  Development  of 
young. 

Spider,  reproductive  organs ;  eggs  in  nest  or  young- 
born  like  parent. 

Butterfly,  testis,  vas  deferens,  vesicula  seminalis; 
ovary,  oviduct.  Metamorphosis.  Illustrations. 

Grasshopper,  reproductive  organs,  laying  eggs, 
moulting.  Illustrations. 

Ants,  bees,  mosquitoes,  dragon  fly,  house  fly;  general 
reports  of  reproduction  and  development  of  young. 
Vertebrates. 

Fishes,  reproductive  organs  (male  and  female). 
External  and  internal  fertilization.  Eggs  and  em- 
bryology. Illustrations. 

Amphibians;  frog,  reproductive  organs  (both  sexes), 
embryology,  development  of  tadpole.  Illustrations. 

Reptiles,  reproductive  organs  (both  sexes),  eggs  and 
embryology.  Illustrations. 

Birds;  pigeon,  reproductive  organs  (both  sexes), 
eggs  and  embryology.  Illustrations. 

Mammals;  rabbit,  reproductive  organs  (male  and 
female),  embryology.  Illustrations. 

The  instructor's  intention  is  to  introduce  the  children  to  the 
general  principles  of  reproduction,  not  to  have  them  memorize 
details.-  Several  terms  used  in  this  summary  (made  from  children's 
papers,  not  furnished  by  instructor)  mean  more  to  the  scientific 
reader  than  is  meant  in  class .  ' '  Embryology, ' '  for  instance,  means 
knowledge  of  gross  development,  structure  and  physiology,  as  a 
child  knows  he  has  arms,  legs,  head,  and  that  he  eats  and  breathes. 
These  pupils  have  simply  learned  what  an  embryo  is  so  clearly 
that  they  will  never  forget. 

Not  less  excellent  work  than  this  on  reproduction  was  also  done 
on  digestion,  circulation,  respiration,  and  in  studies  of  habits  and 
environment  of  these  and  other  animals.  The  children  made 
special  written  reports  on  insects  and  birds  in  their  locality, 
identifying  25  birds  and  40  insects. 


32 

To  students  in  biology  the  above  summary  indicates  that  the 
work  covered  but  an  infinitesimal  part  of  the  subject — a  very 
small  part  of  the  alphabet.  It  is  really  easier  for  children, 
partly  because  fascinating,  than  the  rudiments  of  such  abstract 
subjects  as  mathematics  and  grammar.  But  to  the  non-scientific, 
because  ignorant  of  the  elements  of  biology,  it  looks  very  probably 
"too  difficult,"  very  possibly  "useless."  It  is  becoming,  how- 
ever, a  foundation  principle  in  education  that  a  child's  interests 
properly  followed  up  in  the  schools,  lead  to  the  best  educational  re- 
sults. 

Following  this  review  of  reproduction  the  instructor  gave  a 
talk  on  human  sex  relations  based  on  biology  and  Dr.  Morrow's 
"Social  Diseases  and  Marriage."  It  was  received  without  ex- 
ception wholly  in  the  right  spirit.  The  instructor  has  also  a  class 
of  fifteen  in  botany,  and  two  classes  in  physiology  of  about  forty 
each.  With  both  she  pursues  similar  biologic  methods. 

NATURE   STUDY   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS. 

In  primary  grades. 

In  several  cities  visited  the  schedule  for  "nature  study"  or 
"science  teaching"  includes  physiology  and  hygiene  as  one  of  its 
divisions,  usually  for  the  winter  term  when  "nature  material," 
gardening  and  field  trips  are  less  convenient.1  In  the  great 
majority  of  schools  nature  study  is  not  definitely  planned  and 
such  instruction  in  human  affairs  as  is  given  depends  entirely  upon 
the  individual  teacher. 

It  is  evident  that  a  biologist  teaching  children  of  6  to  14  years 
can  easily  by  comparisons  teach  human  anatomy,  physiology 
and  hygiene.  Such  elementary  instruction  is  limited  more  by 
the  teacher's  capacity  than  by  either  the  children  or  the  oppor- 
tunities. This  was  found  attempted  in  very  different  degrees  by 
many  elementary  general  teachers.  Throughout  the  schools 
visited  the  average  of  excellence  seemed  far  higher  in  primary 
grades,  including  kindergarten.  Stories  of  plants  and  animals 
and  simple  explanations  of  plant  and  animal  phenomena  in  the 

1  It  is  probable  that  the  committee  will  find  it  necessary  to  supplement  its  studies  of 
laws  and  of  text-books  (Bulletin,  June,  1905),  with  a  section  on  physiology  and  hygiene 
"as  it  is  taught."  Such  classes  when  catalogued  under  .nature  study  will  be  considered 
then. 


33 

school-room,  comparisons  with  themselves,  rudimentary  exercises 
in  seeing  and  telling  what  is  seen  are  a  continuation  of  Froebel's 
beginnings.  Sprouting  seeds,  cocoon  and  larvae,  eggs  laid  and 
hatched  into  life  are  useful  material. 

In  grammar  grades. 

In  grammar  grades,  however,  one  is  again  shocked  at  the  in- 
adequate provision  for  instruction  compared  with  that  in  the 
next  grade  in  high  school.  Three  biologists  with  master's  degree 
were  found  teaching  children  of  the  sixth,  seventh  or  eighth 
grades,  10  to  13  years  of  age.  Observation  of  their  work  and  of 
the  results  with  children  of  these  ages  throws  much  light  on  what 
should  and  can  be  wisely  attempted  in  grammar  grades  with  com- 
petent teachers.  Very  special  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
superior  resourcefulness  exhibited  in  the  outdoor  laboratories 
(the  school  gradens)  and  in  the  growing  plant  and  animal  life  in 
the  school-rooms. 

A  brief  outline  of  one  course  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  will 
be  given.  The  instructor,  in  addition  to  a  normal  course  and 
experience  as  a  general  teacher,  had  taken  special  work  in  biology 
and  related  studies  at  Chicago  and  Cornell  universities  for  the 
definite  purpose  of  adapting  such  instruction  to  pupils  in  the 
grades. 

She  had  a  "continued  story"  once  or  twice  a  week  lasting 
through  the  two  years — the  "story  of  the  world  we  live  in."  It 
began  with  the  exhibition  of  some  attractive  chemical  experi- 
ments illustrating  gases,  vapors,  condensations  into  solids,  cooling, 
some  of  the  properties  of  water,  light,  heat,  etc.  This  year's 
work  was  then  continued  from  the  simplest  forms  of  plant  life 
up  to  the  complex,  with  the  frequently  repeated  text:  "The 
two  objects  of  every  living  thing  are  to  perfect  itself  and  to  re- 
produce itself."  For  every  plant  studied  this  year  and  every 
animal  studied  the  following  year  these  two  objects  were  the 
lines  of  study.  In  the  processes  of  perfecting,  human  and  personal 
resemblances  were  constantly  traced. 

For  microscopic  cell  life  yeast  cells  (with  microscopes)  were 
used,  and  the  children  drew  the  cell  reproduction  seen.  They 
saw  and  drew  (with  the  teacher's  help),  spirogyra  and  repro- 


34 

IA/ 

duction  by  conjugation  of  like  cells,  va^cheria  and  conjugation  of 

unlike  cells,  all  leading  to  the  terms  "mother  plant"  and  "father 
plant"  continued  through  the  two  years  with  allied  terms  in 
plant  and  animal  "families." 

Through  higher  plant  forms,  spores,  seeds,  flowers,  pollenation 
by  natural  and  artificial  methods,  these  themes  were  traced,  by 
the  children  themselves  under  the  teacher's  guidance.  Each 
child  in  the  autumn  had  adopted  a  favorite  tree  seen  on  his  way 
to  school,  of  which  he  made  reports  of  foliage,  wintering,  budding, 
leafage;  its  nests,  birds,  insects,  and  neighbors.  These  trees  and 
their  economic,  artistic,  and  other  values,  as  well  as  biology,  were 
the  last  topic.  This  outline  necessarily  omits  important  features 
and  does  not  reflect  the  interesting  personality  that  inspired  the 
pupils,  but  the  closing  lesson  is  worth  giving,  suggested  by  the 
fall  of  a  favorite  tree  in  a  wind  storm.  She  recalled  the  many 
years  that  rain  and  sunshine,  the  seasons,  soil,  and  dews  had 
helped  the  little  seed  to  grow  into  this  graceful  tree  with  beautiful 
leaves,  where  the  birds  nested  and  sang,  and  which  the  children 
loved,  "just  as  you  are  growing  up  and  we  are  trying  to  help  you 
become  good  men  and  women.  But  if  in  your  thoughts  or  in  your 
life  there  is  hidden  somewhere  some  wrong  habit  that  you  would 
not  like  to  have  your  mother  know  nor  me — just  like  the  rotten 
wood  in  the  heart  of  this  tree — then  the  storms  that  come  in  your 
life  too  will  make  you  fail,  and  you  will  grieve  all  your  friends, 
and  all  our  work  will  be  wasted."  The  children  found  this  a  very 
interesting  and  impressive  demonstration  of  the  value  of  "good- 
ness all  through." 

The  study  of  various  animals  along  these  lines  in  the  eighth 
grade  utilized  insects,  birds,  white  mice,  tadpoles,  etc.,  kept  in 
vivariums,  cages  and  aquaria,  thus  showing  various  forms  of 
development  daily.  They  visited  a  government  fish  hatchery  in 
the  neighborhood  and  were  simply  taught  the  details  of  artifi- 
cial propagation.  Economic  and  sociologic  as  well  as  physi- 
ologic and  hygienic  principles  were  taught.  In  answer  to  the 
question,  "Do  you  think  you  have  taught  anything  of  clean 
living?"  the  reply  came  emphatically,  "I  am  sure  I  have.  There 
were  two  boys  two  or  three  years  older  than  the  others.  They 


35 

were  precocious  and  unclean-minded.  It  could  be  seen  in  their 
faces  at  the  beginning  of  the  lessons.  I  had  no  private  talk  with 
them,  but  at  certain  points  I  took  special  pains  to  have  them 
understand.  Before  the  course  was  over  there  was  a  complete 
mental  revolution,  and  moral  too,  I  know  from  their  manner. 
They  are  clean,  good  boys  now  and  twice  as  bright." 

IN   CONCLUSION. 

There  was  nothing  exceptional  either  as  teachers  or  as  biologists 
in  these  special  instructors.  Each  was  good  in  both  capacities. 
Thousands  of  equally  valuable  specialists  are  possible  if  the 
schools  demand  them.  The  exceptional  feature  is  that  these  few 
grammar  schools  have  undertaken  it.  They  are  demonstrating 
success.  Not  until  this  real  nature  work  is  seen  can  one  fully 
estimate  what  remains  to  be  done  in  all  grammar  schools  of  the 
country. 

The  fact  that  so  few  general  teachers  in  grammar  grades  do 
efficient  scientific  work  is  clearly  due  to  first,  temperamental  in 
capacity  for  methods  of  scientific  research.  This  may  be  com- 
bined with  excellent  ability  for  teaching  the  "  three  Rs"  and  for 
other  features  of  general  work.  Second,  it  is  due  to  educational 
deficiencies.  Of  32  general  teachers  not  one  had  more  than  a  very 
small  fraction  of  the  preparatory  training  in  natural  science  with 
which  five  special  teachers  had  found  it  necessary  to  supplement 
their  own  enthusiasm  for  such  studies  in  the  grades.  The  science 
training  of  these  thirty-two  was  also  many  times  less  than  the 
training  they  had  gone  through  to  teach  arithmetic,  language,  or 
even  music  and  gymnastics.  The  best  work  by  general  teachers 
was  found  in  those  cities  where  a  biologist  supervised  their  work. 
In  these  places  the  teachers  relied  upon  the  supervisor's  visits  and 
stimulus ;  and  their  work  was  very  far  from  that  of  the  biologists 
quoted. 

For  general  teachers  a  few  books  outlining  practicable  courses 
have  been  written.  A  parallel  was  presented  in  the  committee's 
report  on  recent  text-books  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  very 
excellent  and  adapted  for  all  grades.  The  query  now  as  then  is, 
"Are  ordinary  teachers  able  to  use  these  books?'*  Another 


36 

inquiry  also  is  pertinent:  "Do  school  boards  adopt  these  best 
books?" 

The  fact  observed  is  that  in  those  very  rare  schools  where  a 
certain  recent  excellent  book  is  used  as  a  guide,  the  differences 
between  the  quality  of  work  by  various  instructors  is  very  much 
greater  than  the  differences  in  their  general  work,  while  the  best 
was  not  as  good  as  has  been  seen  elsewhere  by  special  teachers. 
Text-books  and  printed  schedules  are  by  no  means  sufficient  for 
estimating  educational  progress. 


Whether  these  methods  of  teaching  hygiene  through  domestic 
science  and  nature  study  are  what  the  profession  of  medicine  would 
do  well  to  advocate,  can  only  be  wisely  discussed  after  review  of 
other  existing  methods  which  the  committee  will  present. 


APPENDIX  D. 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  COURSES. 

TECHNICAL  HIGH   SCHOOL,    PROVIDENCE,    RHODE  ISLAND. 

Instructor  in  Domestic  Science  and  Chemistry,  Miss  Abby  L. 
Marlatt,  M.  S.,  (special  biology  atBrown  University,  dietetics  with 
Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater,  psychology  at  Clark  University;  member 
American  Chemical  Society;  etc.) 

Entrance  requirements  graduation  from  grammar  school  or 
examination. 

SCOPE  OF  COURSE. 

Second  year :  Study  of  food  classes ;  as  water,  nitrogenous  foods, 
carbohydrates  and  fats  with  reference  to  the  applica- 
tion of  laws  of  physics  and  chemistry  in  rendering 
the  food  more  nearly  available  for  use  of  man. 
Each  food  is  studied  first  in  original  condition  for 
composition;  second,  for  changes  which  occur  in 
physical  and  chemical  conditions  during  cooking 
and  how  these  affect  the  digestibility.  Practice 
in  the  art  of  cooking  is  given  to  illustrate  laws  and 
train  to  better  appreciation  of  value  of  dainty  service 
in  stimulating  power  to  digest.  The  work  includes 
bread-  and  cake-making  studied  as  to  principles  and 
as  to  economic  value  when  made  in  the  home. 


37 

The  hygienic  value  of  cleanliness  is  part  of  all  in- 
struction. 

Typical  dietaries  are  planned,  the  economic  questions 
being  studied  along  with  the  hygienic.  Visits  to 
markets  and  practice  in  purchasing  and  preparing 
food  for  breakfast,  luncheon  and  dinner  complete 
this  year's  work. 

CORRELATED  STUDIES. 

Physics  of  light  and  heat  and  liquids  is  a  prereq- 
uisite for  second  year  work. 

General  chemistry  alternates  with  the  work  in  the 
kitchen  laboratory  so  that  when  pupil  is  applying 
heat  in  discovering  the  temperatures  which  coagulate 
the  various  proteids  as  egg,  meat  juice,  etc.,  she  is 
also  testing  the  foods  for  their  nitrogen  and  sulphur 
content  to  determine  if  they  are  capable  of  building 
muscle  or  only  of  supplying  energy  to  the  body  in 
form  of  heat  and  work. 

The  aim  in  all  this  work  is  to  develop  the  reasoning 
power  through  appeal  to  factors  which  are  of  vital 
interest  and  thus  lead  to  correct  understanding  of 
cause  and  effect  in  relation  to  health. 
Correct  use  of  the  English  language  and  concise 
thinking  is  demanded  and  cultivated  in  the  note- 
books which  record  the  daily  work.  Frequent 
essays  on  the  subjects  studied  are  part  of  the  work  in 
English  composition. 

METHODS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Individual  laboratory  work  is  required.  The  work 
is  planned  as  is  work  in  either  chemistry  or  physics. 
The  problem  is  assigned  and  each  pupil  performs 
the  experiment,  recording  the  details  and  drawing 
conclusions  from  data  acquired.  One  and  a  half 
hours  alternate  days  are  devoted  to  the  work. 
The  laboratory  is  equipped  with  individual  work 
tables  fitted  with  gas.  There  is  a  long  laboratory 
table  for  special  chemical  work  in  connection  with  food. 


38 

Third  year :    Chemistry  of  foods  and  of  digestion. 

Water  analyses  (city  supply  and  spring  waters), 
analyses  of  food  principles  (fat,  sugar,  starch, 
proteids,  gelatinoids)  leading  to  food  analyses. 
Various  foods,  as  milk,  malted  foods,  peptonized 
foods,  baby  foods,  and  liquid  beef  extracts,  olive 
oils,  butters,  are  analyzed. 

Digestion  experiments  are  made  with  saliva,  and 
artificial  gastric  and  pancreatic  fluids.  These 
principles  in  connection  with  review  of  previous 
year's  work  are  applied  in  making  modified  milk, 
liquid  foods  for  the  adult  sick,  predigested  foods 
and  special  diets  for  typical  diseases. 

CORRELATED  STUDIES. 

Physics;  study  of  light  and  electricity.  Electric 
apparatus  is  used  in  part  of  the  cooking  practice. 
Botany;  the  work  in  botany  beginning  with  the  lowest 
forms  as  bacteria  is  very  closely  correlated  with  the 
food  work  and  with  the  study  of  bacteria  in  the 
water  supply  and  in  milk.  The  study  of  yeasts 
and  molds  is  foundation  work  in  this  year's  and  in 
the  succeeding  year's  work  in  sanitation. 
The  aim  is  to  train  the  pupil  to  an  appreciation  of 
the  importance  of  a  safe  food  supply  if  man  is  to 
survive  modern  methods  in  preservation  and  trans- 
portation of  food,  and  to  appreciate  that  food  may 
be  made  more  easy  of  digestion  when  the  health  is 
below  the  normal. 

METHODS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Individual  work  as  in  the  second  year.     Note-books 
are  kept  and  scientific  research  on  special  problems  is 
encouraged,  supplies  of  water  and  other  foods  being 
brought  from  the  homes  of  the  pupils. 
Fourth  year:  Sanitation,  personal  hygiene,  care  of  the  sick. 

Experimental  work  in  study  of  food  supply,  preserva- 
tives (in  canned  meats,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  in 
sauces) ;  purity  of  foods  (adulterations)  and  methods 


39 

of  preserving  for  future  consumption  as  drying  and 
sterilizing.  Experiments  with  temperature  and  con- 
ditions which  affect  bacterial,  yeast  and  mold 
growths.  Study  of  insects  which  affect  food  and 
how  to  prevent  their  work  (partly  experimental). 
Study  of  a  sanitary  house  includes  visits  to  houses  in 
process  of  erection,  study  of  soils,  foundation,  floor 
plans,  plumbing  devices,  finishings,  heating  and 
ventilating  systems.  Bacteriologic  and  other  ex- 
perimental work  is  done  in  study  of  ventilating 
systems  in  school  buildings.  Bacteria  in  air  before 
and  after  sweeping  and  per  cent,  of  CO2  as  test  of 
purity  of  air  are  some  of  the  things  experimented 
upon.  Each  pupil  plans  and  draws  to  scale  a  house 
which  according  to  contractor's  estimates  shall  not 
exceed  $3,000  in  cost  of  construction.  Proper 
ventilation,  heating,  and  sanitary  and  aesthetic 
furnishing  are  studied  for  the  houses  planned,  each 
being  an  individual  problem. 

Personal  hygiene  deals  with  the  care  of  the  body  and 
discusses  contagion  including  social  diseases  and 
their  relation  to  the  individual  and  the  home. 
Care  of  the  sick  is  lecture  work  supplemented  by 
lessons  at  the  hospital  and  practice  in  emergency 
bandaging  and  other  first  aids  to  the  injured. 

CORRELATED  STUDIES. 

Analytical  chemistry. 

Drawing — sketches  in  water  color  of  interiors  of 
houses  planned  in  domestic  science  work,  and  design 
as  applied  to  wall  papers,  curtains  and  rugs  closely 
follows  the  work  in  the  domestic  science  department. 


The  aim  is  to  dignify  the  home  by  leading  the  student 
to  see  that  home  life  depends  upon  all  the  sciences 
and  requires  as  thorough  training  as  for  any  pro- 
fession; that  upon  the  sanitary  and  moral  standard 


40 

maintained  in  the  home  depends  the  welfare  of  the 
nation;  and  that  therefore  there  is  no  higher  work 
than  home-building. 

As  an  aid  to  this  psychology  as  it  applies  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  child  is  a  correlated  study. 

BROOKLINE  (MASS.)  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

Miss  Lillie  C.  Smith,  Instructor  in  Domestic  Science  and  Chem- 
istry (Framingham  Normal  School,  special  courses  at  Boston  In- 
stitute of  Technology,  and  Harvard  University). 

The  work  in  Domestic  Science1  is  largely  an  application  of  other  sciences 
to  daily  life.  Its  final  aim  is,  while  training  the  pupil,  to  give  the  home  its 
legitimate  position  among  our  social  institutions,  to  arouse  interest  in  the 
familiar  processes  and  environment  of  home  life,  and  to  show  that  home- 
making  is  a  worthy  occupation  for  the  most  gifted. 

The  food  problem  is  selected  for  the  first  year's  work,  because  the  average 
girl  is  more  interested  in  this  department  of  the  work  than  in  any  other. 

A  knowledge  of  chemistry  is  essential  to  even  a  superficial  understanding 
of  every-day  processes,  and  the  second  year  is  devoted  to  this  subject  and  its 
applications. 

The  third  year  is  devoted  chiefly  to  a  study  of  the  house  itself,  its  con- 
struction, its  sanitary  arrangements  and  their  care,  its  furnishing  and  decora- 
tion. An  excellent  opportunity  is  given,  and  improved,  for  correlating  the 
work  of  this  year  with  that  of  the  art  department.  Many  of  the  topics,  such 
as  ventilation  and  heating,  involve  principles  of  physics,  and  here  also  the 
effort  is  made  to  apply  work  already  done  in  that  department,  and  to  bring 
to  students  without  that  training  the  knowledge  of  some  elementary  principles. 

The  fourth  year  is  largely  given  to  the  applications  of  biology  to  every-day 
life.  The  study  of  bacteriology  leads  directly  to  the  theory  of  disease,  and  to 
simple  home-nursing  and  emergency  work.  A  short  course  in  invalid  cookery 
gives  opportunity  for  a  review  of  the  principles  learned  in  the  first  year.  The 
latter  part  of  the  year  is  spent  in  discussing  problems  which  are  those  of  home- 
making  rather  than  of  housekeeping.  Many  of  these  are  economic  problems 
as  well,  and  are  looked  at  from  the  economic  as  well  as  the  domestic  stand- 
point. 

The  following  topics  belong  both  to  Political  Economy  and  to  Domestic 
Science: 

The  Consumption  of  Wealth. 

Food,  in  its  Relation  to  Labor  Power. 

The  Housing  of  the  Poor,  and  its  Relation  to  Good  Citizenship. 

Municipal  Sanitary  Regulations. 

1  This  outline  was  published  three  years  ago.  Like  all  scientific  courses,  it  changes 
yearly,  this  one  changing  chiefly  in  the  direction  of  more  study  of  dietaries  and  of  bac- 
teria.—Cow. 


Expenditure  versus  Saving. 

Domestic  Service  (as  a  part  of  the  general  labor  problem). 

The  Work  of  Superintending  a  Home  compared  with  other  Economic 
Occupations. 

Child  Labor. 

Throughout  the  course  expeditions  are  made  whenever  practicable,  to 
broaden  the  outlook  of  the  students  and  impress  upon  their  minds  the  sub- 
jects discussed. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  topics  suggested  for  theme  work  in  connection 
with  the  English  department: 

The  Life  and  Work  of  Count  Rumford. 

The  Influence  of  Pasteur  on  Modern  Science. 

Yeast  Fermentation  in  its  Relation  to  Bread-making. 

The  Manufacture  of  Flour. 

Experiments  with  Albumen. 

Dust. 

Bacteria  and  Butter-making. 

The  Brookline  Water  Supply. 

The  System  of  Ventilation  in  the  Brookline  High  School. 

An  Ideal  Room. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

General  Subject — Food  and  its  Preparation. 
Reference  books  used: 

Parkes's  Hygiene. 

Church's  Food. 

Goodfellow's  Dietetic  Value  of  Bread. 

Thompson's  Practical  Dietetics. 

Food  Materials  and  their  Adulterations. 

American  Kitchen  Magazine. 

Pamphlets  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Atkinson's  Science  of  Nutrition. 

Century  Articles  by  Atwater. 

(A)  The  kitchen — its  plan,  arrangement  and  care.      Cooking  apparatus — 
coal  and  gas  stoves,  electric  appliances,  Aladdin  oven.     Fuels:  kinds,  com- 
parative efficiency  and  cost. 

(B)  Cooking — canning  and  preserving.     Bread-making.     (Note:   Both  of 
these  subjects  involve  references  to  the  biology  which  the  class  are  studying 
at  this  time,  and  include  the  use  of  the  microscope.)     Cooking  of  breakfast 
dishes:  eggs,  meats,  cereals,  muffins.     Serving  breakfast. 

Dinner  dishes:  soups,  fish,  meats,  vegetables,  desserts.  Practice  in  plan- 
ning, purchasing  and  serving  a  dinner. 

Luncheon  and  tea  dishes:  salads,  simple  entrees,  baking-powder  mixtures. 
The  luncheon  basket. 

(C)  Special  study  of  foods  and  food    materials — classification,  function, 


42 

cost.     Manufacturing    processes.     Adulterations.     Physiology    of    digestion. 
Dietaries. 

(D)  Excursions  to  market,  to  chocolate  factory,  and  similar  expeditions. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

General  subject — Chemistry. 
Books  of  reference: 

Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning,  Mrs.  Richards. 

Dietary  Computer,  Mrs.  Richards. 

Chemistry  of  Cookery,  Mattieu  Williams. 

Chemistry  of  Daily  Life,  Lassar-Cohn. 

Chemistry,  Storer  and  Lindsay. 

Elements  of  Chemistry,  Williams. 

Stories  of  Industry. 

(A)  General  Chemistry — study  of  the  air  and  its  gases.      Chemistry  of 
respiration.     Water:  its  composition,  distillation,  solvent  power.     Hard  and 
soft  water.     Hydrogen.     Acids,  bases,  salts.     The  halogens  and  their  com- 
pounds.    Sulphur  and   phosphorus.     Carbon   and   the   chemistry   of   com- 
bustion     Fuels  and  illuminants.     Dyeing  of  cloth.     Starch,  sugar,  albumen, 
fats.     Chemistry  of  fermentation,  and  of  digestion. 

Study  of  the  metals.     Action  of  acids  and  alkalies  upon  the  common  metals 
and  their  compounds.     Simple  qualitative  analysis. 

(B)  Household  applications. 

(1)  Chemistry  of  cookery.     Testing  of  foods  for  proteid,  starch,  sugar 
Effect  of  heat  on  albumen  and  starch.     Effect  of  hard  and  soft  water  on  food. 
Applications  of  fermentation.     Experiments  with  baking-powder. 

(2)  Chemistry   of   cleaning.     Removal   of    dust   and    dirt.     Solvents   for 
grease.     Soap,  and  soap-making.     Removal  of  spots  and  stains  from  fabrics 
and  from  wood.     Cleaning  of  metallic  surfaces. 

(3)  Analysis  of  compounds  in  use  in  the  household,  such  as  washing-powders, 
silver  polishes,  bluing,  baking-powder. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

General  subject — The  House. 
Books  of  reference: 

Home  Sanitation. 

Parkes's  Hygiene. 

Ventilation  and  Heating,  Billings. 

Handbook  of  Sanitary  Information,  Tracy. 

Building  Superintendence,  Clark. 

The  House  that  Jill  Built,  Gardner. 

The  House  Beautiful,  Gannett. 

The  Open  Fireplace  in  all  Ages,  Putnam. 

Water  Supply,  Nichols. 

State  Board  of  Health  Reports. 

Articles  from  Sanitary  Engineer. 

Articles  and  booklets  by  Waring,  Gerhard,  etc. 


43 

(A)  Situation  and  Surroundings  of  the  House. 

Study  of  soils  and  building  sites.  The  location  from  the  sanitary,  aesthetic 
and  practical  standpoints. 

(B)  Domestic  Architecture. 

(1)  Historical — The  evolution  of  the  house.     Homes  of  primitive  peoples. 
Greek   and   Roman  houses.     The  mediaeval  house.     Old   colonial  houses. 
The  house  in  Japan,  Italy,  England. 

(2)  Modern  American  Houses. 

Artistic  requirements.     Practical  requirements.     Drawing  of  house  plans. 

(C)  Sanitation. 

Disposal  of  household  waste.  Modern  plumbing.  Study  of  plumbing  in 
houses  in  process  of  construction.  Care  of  plumbing.  Use  of  disinfectants. 

The  physics  and  physiology  of  ventilation.  Systems  of  ventilation,  es- 
pecially that  of  the  high  school  building.  Tests  for  purity  of  the  air. 

Heating  and  lighting.  Relative  merits  and  cost  of  different  systems. 
Applications  of  physics  in  steam  and  hot  water  heating,  electric  light,  and 
gas  meter. 

Water  supply.  Study  of  Brookline  and  Boston  supplies.  Visits  to  reser- 
voir and  pumping  stations.  Chemical  tests.  Microscopic  examination. 
Filtration  of  water.  Consumption  of  water  in  household,  with  study  of 
meter.  Stereopticon  lectures. 

(D)  Finishing,  furnishing  and  decoration  of  the  house. 

Study  of  woods.  Methods  of  finishing  woodwork  and  its  care.  Principles 
of  decoration.  Furnishing  from  an  artistic  and  a  sanitary  standpoint. 

(E)  Clothing. 

Study  of  clothing  materials.  Dress  from  the  standpoint  of  health  and  of 
beauty. 

FOURTH   YEAR 

General  subjects — Biology.     Economics. 
References: 

Story  of  Germ  Life,  Conn. 
Story  of  the  Bacteria,  Prudden. 
Dust  and  its  Dangers,  Prudden. 
Water  and  Ice,  Prudden. 
Food  and  the  Labor  Power  of  Nations,  Nitti. 
Domestic  Service,  Salmon. 
A  Belated  Industry,  Addams. 
Pamphlets  by  Dr.  S.  W.  Dike. 
(A)  Household  Biology. 

Study  of  yeast,  moulds,  and  bacteria.  Household  applications  of  bacteriol- 
ogy. Dust  and  its  organisms.  Bacterial  analysis  of  air,  water,  milk.  Fer- 
mentation from  the  biological  standpoint.  The  theory  of  disease.  Home 
nursing,  including  the  preparation  of  food  for  the  sick.  Home  treatment  for 
simple  accidents,  such  as  burns,  scalds,  cuts,  sprains. 


44 

(B)  Sociological  and  economic  problems  of  the  home. 

The  function  of  the  home  in  society.  The  relation  of  different  members 
of  the  family.  Household  expenditure.  Domestic  service.  The  relation 
of  food  to  labor  power.  The  economic  value  of  home-making  as  a  profession. 
The  ideal  home. 


APPENDIX  E. 

EXTRACTS  AND  DRAWINGS  FROM  REVIEW  PAPERS  BY  A  CLASS 
OF  15  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  CHILDREN,  13  TO  16  YEARS  OLD.1 

MUSKEGON   HIGH   AND   HACKLEY  MANUAIy  TRAINING   SCHOOL,   MUSKEGON, 

MICHIGAN. 

For  further  explanation  of  these  papers  see  pp.  438-442. 
Reproduction  in  Animals. 

Written  by  Paul  C.,  age  14. 

Birth,  growth,  reproduction,  and  death  are  inevitable  in  the  life  of  every 
ariimal.  In  all  except  the  very  lowest  animals,  where  the  body  of  the  parent 
simply  divides  and  thus  forms  two  new  individuals,  life  has  been  going  on 
before  birth,  either  inside  of  the  mother's  body  or  in  an  egg. 

Growth  and  reproduction  are  the  two  main  objects  in  the  life  of  every 
animal,  after  birth.  Reproduction  is  as  important  if  not  more  so  than  growth. 
Reproduction  must  take  place  in  the  life  of  an  animal  if  the  species  or  family 
to  which  it  belongs  is  to  be  kept  alive.  Growth  and  development  are  almost 
as  necessary  as  reproduction,  because  without  growth,  animals  could  not 
reproduce  for  they  must  reach  a  mature  state  and  also  develop  to  a  certain 
extent.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  however;  as,  a  lizard  living  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  which  never  reaches  the  adult  state,  and,  the  Amoeba 
which  is  fully  developed  from  the  time  of  fission.  The  Amoeba  has  no  real 
death  as  its  body  lives  on  in  two  parts  after  division. 


The  Protozoa,  the  lowest  class  of  animals  and  consisting  of  only  one  cell, 
1  Some  pains  are  taken  in  printing  extracts  to  reproduce  spelling,  punctuation  and 
other  details  by  which  readers  can  judge  how  weighty  are  the  frequently  heard  objections 
to  introducing  science  to  public  school  children  on  the  ground  that  all  their  time  is  needed 
for  the  "  three  Rs"  as  "essentials."  Few  editors  have  MSS.  calling  for  less  blue  penciling 
even  when  prepared  for  publication.  The  papers  are  not  perfect  in  these  respects,  but 
are  good.  The  handwritings  are  more  legible  than  the  average  adult's.— Cow. 


45 

have  two  methods  of  reproduction,  the  asexual  and  the 
sexual.  The  asexual  is  the  method  generally  found  used, 
being  simply  the  division  of  the  body  into  two  parts. 
But  once  in  awhile,  after  dividing  hundreds  of  times, 
two  individuals  will  conjugate,  that  is,  come  together 
and  exchange  nuclear  material  and  then  separate.  This 
is  called  the  sexual  method. 

Between  the  Protozoa  or  unicellular  animals  and  the  Metazoa  or  many 
celled  animals  come  the  slightly  complex  animals.  Under  this  class  is  the 
Volvox,  an  animal  consisting  of  a  hollow  sphere  of  cells.  This  animal  has 
two  ways  of  reproducing,  that  of  spore  formation  and  the  sexual  method. 
Some  of  the  cells  forming  the  wall  drop  into  the  cavity  and  develope  into 
spores.  Each  spore  divides  and  redivides  and  forms  a  young  Volvox.  These 
young  are  liberated  and  develope  into  adults.  Instead  of  this,  some  of  the  cells 
may  develope  into  eggs  and  sperm.  These  then  drop  into  the  cavity  where 
they  unite  and  are  finally  liberated.  In  this  method,  however,  the  eggs  and 
sperm  are  doubted  to  be  true  sex  cells. 

Eggs  and  sperm  first  appear  in  the  Coelenterates,  the  first  phylum  of  the 
many  celled  animals.  Many  of  these  animals  live  on  stalks.  The  lowest 


animal  in  this  class  is  the  Hydra,  a  long,  cylindrical,  sac-like  animal  with  a 


46 


row  of  tentacles  around  the  mouth.  Often  two  swellings  appear  on  the  side, 
the  one  above  containing  the  sperm  and  the  lower  one,  the  eggs,  [illustra- 
tion does  not  correspond  in  this  last  detail.]  When  the  eggs  and  sperm  are 
ripe,  the  swellings  burst  and  allow  them  to  go  out  into  the  water.  Although 
the  animal  is  a  Hermaphrodite,  that  is,  contains  both  eggs  and  sperm,  the 
eggs  of  one  individual  must  be  fertilized  by  the  sperm  of  another.  The 
Hydra  also  has  the  asexual  method  of  budding. 

Under  the  Coelenterates  are  the  Hydrazoa  or  Hydra-like  animals,  and 
consist  of  a  number  of  animals  living  on  a  branched  stalk.  This  colonial 
form  has  been  formed  by  budding  and  each  animal  remaining  attached  to 
the  parent  stalk.  Soon  a  new  branch  is  developed  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
thick  membrane.  On  this  branch,  but  inside  the  membrane,  grow  a  number 
of  jellyfish-like  animals  called  Medusae,  which  bear  sacs  containing  either 
eggs  or  sperm.  The  Medusae,  when  grown,  are  liberated  and  float  away. 
When  ripe,  the  eggs  or  sperm  are  freed.  These  unite  with  others  and  form 
new  stalked  colonies.  This  is  called  the  alternation  of  generations,  the 
stalked  colonies  alternating  with  the  Medusae. 

The  wall  of  a  sponge  is  composed  of  three  layers,  the  outer  or  ectoderm, 
the  middle  or  mesoglea,  which  is  composed  of  a  jelly-like  substance,  and  the 
ft        inner  or  endoderm.     Wandering  around  in  the 
^        mesoglea   are    amoeboid    cells    resembling  the 
0  Amoeba.     Some  of  these   cells  develope  into 
/       sperm  and  others  into  eggs,  the  sexual  method ; 
or,  some  may  develope  into  spores,  the  asexual 
method.     The  eggs  and  sperm  unite,  and  the 
cells    thus   formed    divide  and  redivide  untill 
new    sponges    are   created.      The    spores  also 
divide,  and  the  young  are  liberated  into  the  body 
cavity  and  then  go  out  of  the  mouth. 

The  development  of  the  egg  of  a  sponge  is  illustrated  in  the  following 
pictures. 


Q   CD 


47 

The  next  phylum  of  animals  is  the  Worms,  and  includes  the  Flatworms, 
Planaria,  etc.,  and  the  Roundworms,  Trichina,  etc.  This  large  phylum 
has  only  the  sexual  method  of  reproduction.  The  Planaria  is  a  worm  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  sheet  of  paper.  Beneath  the 


G.,/fJ 


body  wall  extend  two  tubes,  closed  at  the  head  end,  but  joined  at  the  other. 
They  join  into  a  tube  that  leads  into  a  small  sac.  Into  this  cavity  run  two 
other  tubes  which  collect  the  eggs  that  are  scattered  under  the  body  wall. 
At  the  sides  of  the  closed  ends  of  the  first  pair  of  tubes  are  two  sacs  which  con- 
tain the  sperm.  When  ripe  the  eggs  and  sperm  drop  into  the  tubes  and  unite 
with  each  other  and  fall  into  the  body  cavity  and  then  through  the  mouth  to 
form  new  planaria. 

The  Roundworms  have  many  different  forms  of  reproduction.  In  some, 
the  eggs  develope  in  the  body  and  are  born  ah*  ve  with  the  shape  of  the  parent, 
as  in  the  "Vinegar  eel."  Others  lay  them  in  the  water  where  they  grow 
directly  to  the  adult  state.  But  most  of  them  develope  in  a  roundabout 
manner.  The  Trichina  lives  particularly  in  the  body  of  a  rat.  When  first 
admitted  into  the  alimentary  canal  of  its  host,  it  lays  millions  of  eggs,  some 
of  which  develope  into  young  and  bore  their  way  into  the  muscles  of  the  rat. 
When  some  animal  eats  the  rat,  the  young  are  freed,  become  adult  and  then 
lay  more  eggs. 

The  Echinoderms,  starfishes,  sea-urchins,  sea-lilies,  etc.,  are  not  Hermaph- 
rodite, one  animal  alone  carrying  either  eggs  or  sperm.  With  but  few  excep- 
tions, the  eggs  and  sperm  are  laid  directly  in  the  water,  where  they  unite  and 
form  young  which  are  carried  long  distances  by  the  currents  and  then  settle 
down  and  become  the  shape  of  their  parent. 

Written  by  George  F.,  age  15. 

In  the  star  fish  the  reproductive  or- 
gans are  large  in  breeding  time.  The 
sac  or  ovaries  extend  the  length  of  the 
rays  ;  but  in  the  time  when  they  are  not 
breeding  they  are  small.  Each  sac  con- 
tains from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred 
thousand  eggs.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  water  and  the  sperm  is  put  upon 
them.  The  eggs  and  sperm  are  not 
carried  in  the  same  individual. 


48 

Written  by  Robert  D.,  age  14  years,  2  months. 

In  the  earth  worm,  which  is  a  good  example  of  the  Annelid  or  segmented 
worms,  the  reproductive  system  is  between  the  ninth  and  fifteenth  segments. 
The  spermaries  are  in  the  segments  from  ninth  to  twelfth;  the  ovaries  in  the 
thirteenth  segment.  The  sperm  pass  down  tubes  to  the  fifteenth  segment, 


and  the  ova  pass  down  two  others  to  the  fourteenth  segment.  Here  they  are 
fertilized  by  another  worm,  and  then  a  sort  of  sheath  formed  from  a  secretion 
from  the  clitellum  passes  over  the  body  and  gathers  up  the  eggs  and  sperm 
and  passes  off  the  body  and  is  rolled  into  a  ball  forming  an  egg  case. 

Written  by  Paul  C.,  age  14. 

The  large  phylum  of  Arthropoda  includes  the  Crustacea,  crabs,  crayfishes, 
etc.,  the  Insects,  moths,  ants,  etc.,  the  Spiders,  and  two  other  classes.  In 
the  lower  classes  of  Crustacea,  the  male  is  usually  small.  The  female  carries 
brood-pouches  in  which  eggs  are  placed  for  development.  The  young  are 
born  in  the  form  of  minute  larvae  which  do  not  in  the  least  resemble  their 
parents.  After  many  moults  they  become  adult.  The  Crustacea  are  dioecious, 
that  is,  the  eggs  or  sperm  are  carried  in  different  individuals.  In  the  higher 
classes  part  of  the  development  takes  place  while  attached  to  the  parent 
and  thus  when  born  somewhat  resemble  their  parents.  The  lobster  carries 
its  eggs  for  about  a  year  before  hatching.  When  hatched,  the  young  swim 
away,  undergo  four  or  five  moults  and  then  settle  to  the  bottom.  They  then 
resemble  their  parents  and  only  need  to  grow  before  becoming  adult. 

The  Insecta  lay  their  eggs  either  in  the  water  or  in  the  ground,  on  leaves 
or  in  wood.  Many  undergo  a  metamorphosis  and  again  many  do  not.  A 
typical  example  of  those  that  do  not  undergo  a  metamorphosis  is  the  grass- 
hopper. The  eggs  of  the  grasshopper  are  laid  in  bunches  about  half  an  inch 
underground.  When  hatched  the  grasshopper  plainly  resembles  its  parent 
except  in  size  and  the  lack  of  wings.  It  eats  and  grows  rapidly  for  a  few 
days  and  then  moults  the  covering  around  it,  called  chitin.  The  four  wings 
can  now  be  seen  in  a  rudimentary  state.  After  the  fifth  and  last  moult  the 
grasshopper  is  a  full-grown  and  adult  insect.  The  butterfly  is  a  type  of  the 
insects  that  do  undergo  a  metamorphosis.  The  female  lays  its  eggs  on  the 


49 

edge  of  a  milkweed  or  other  support.  When  hatched  the  larva  is  a  worm  like 
animal  with  eight  pair  of  legs,  called  a  caterpillar.  It  undergoes  four  moults 
at  the  end  of  which  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  pupa  or  chrysalis,  greatly  contracted, 
and  with  a  thick,  hard,  outer  chitinous  wall,  hanging  to  its  support.  It 
hangs  here  from  two  days  to  a  few  weeks,  when  the  chrysalis  splits  and  the 
beautiful  adult  animal  emerges. 

The  Molluscs  include  the  clams,  oysters,  mussels,  etc.  The  oysters  and 
other  inactive  molluscs  shed  their  eggs  from  two  to  forty  million,  directly 
into  the  water  and  let  them  take  their  chance  of  developing.  Those  that 
develope  follow  the  first  stages  of  the  sponge  in  development  until  it  becomes 
a  free  swimming  mollusc,  after  which  it  settles  down  in  the  inactive  adult 
state.  The  development  of  the  freshwater  clam  is,  however,  somewhat 
different.  The  eggs  as  soon  as  they  are  laid  are  placed  in  the  cuter  gill  plate, 
where  they  undergo  the  first  stages  of  development  and  are  in  the  form  of 
minute  young  with  a  toothed  bivalve  shell.  These  are  then  freed  and  swim 
about  in  the  water  until  they  are  caught  in  the  fins  or  gills  of  a  passing  fish. 
They  sink  into  the  body  of  the  fish  and  go  through  other  transformations 
and  finally  break  away  and  fall  to  the  bottom. 

SUMMARY   OF  REPRODUCTION   IN  INVERTEBRATE   ANIMAX3. 

The  methods  of  reproduction  in  the  invertebrates  are  very  simple,  being, 
in  the  simplest  forms,  division  or  budding;  next,  those  that  have  the  power  of 
budding  and  allso  have  eggs  and  sperm,  though  in  the  same  individual,  and 
those  that  possess  either  eggs  or  sperm.  The  organs  in  the  higher  forms  are 
simple  as  compared  with  those  of  the  vertebrates. 

The  development  of  the  lowest  invertebrates  is  not  of  much  importance  as 
it  consists  principally  of  growth.  As  we  go  higher  in  the  scale  of  life,  how- 
ever, the  development  becomes  much  more  complex  and  it  has  reached  a 
high  stage  in  the  molluscs  and  arthropods. 

In  the  lower  classes  the  parents  do  not  take  care  of  their  young  but  simply 
allow  them  to  be  carried  about  by  wind  or  water  or  to  be  caught  and  eaten 
by  other  animals.  But  in  the  higher  classes,  such  as  the  Insects,  we  find 
that  some  parents  do  care  for  their  young.  The  ants  have  separate  rooms 
laid  out  in  their  nests,  for  the  eggs.  They  carry  these  outside  and  watch 
them  to  see  that  nothing  disturbs  them,  and  if  danger  threatens,  they  in- 
stantly carry  them  back  to  the  nest.  After  hatching  they  feed  and  protect 
their  young  until  they  are  strong  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The 
bees  also  take  care  of  their  young,  feeding  and  protecting  them. 

Written  by  Minnie  C.,  age  16. 

THE  VERTEBRATES. 

In  the  fishes,  as  the  shark,  there  are  two  ovaries,  varying  in  size.  The 
oviducts  are  separate  from  the  ovaries,  and  near  the  anterior  end  they  come 
closely  together  and  unite.  The  rest  of  the  oviduct  is  narrow,  except  where 


50 


the  shell  glands  are  located.  The  oviduct  communicates  with  the  ureters 
and  opens  into  the  cloaca. 

In  the  male  fish  the  spermaries  are  elongated  and  are  connected  with  ducts 
which  pass  into  the  vas  deferens  which  is  dilated  near  its  opening  to  form 
a  little  sac.  The  sperm  is  deposited  in  the  body  of  the  female  and  after  the 
egg  and  sperm  have  united,  it  leaves  the  body.  The  germ  cell  begins  to  divide 

and  continues  doing  so  until  a  blasto- 
derm is  formed  which  covers  the  rest 
of  the  egg.  And  now  two  layers  of 
cells  are  formed,  which,  near  one  side 
beginsto  fold  in,  and  an  ectoderm, 
.,  tt)  mesoderm  and  endoderm  are  formed. 
After  a  little  further  development 

the  ectoderm  gives  rise  to  the  skin,  nervous  system,  and  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  mouth  gills  and  cloaca;  the  mesoderm  gives  rise  to  the  muscles  of 
the  body;  and  the  endoderm  forms  all  the  internal  organs. 

Amphibian.  —  The  male  frog's  reproductive  organs  are  white  bodies  lying 
very  near  the  kidneys.  A  tube  passes  from  each  and  becomes  connected  with 
the  urinary  tubules  which  carry  the  sperm  from  the  body. 

The  ovaries  are  large  sacs,  and  the  ovi  are  black  on  one  side  and  white  on 
the  other.  Attached  to  the  ovaries  are  large  convulated  oviducts,  which 
lead  to  the  cloaca  where  the  eggs  are  deposited.  The  female  lays  the  eggs, 
then  the  male  lays  the  sperm  over  them,  and  the  egg  begins  to  divide  in  this 
way: 


Reptiles. — In  a  female  reptile,  there  is  a  large  ovary  on  each  side  of  the 
body  with  a  large  tube  leading  from  each.  The  kidney  are  located  very  near 
the  cloaca,  and  over  these  kidneys  the  oviduct  passes,  opening  into  the  cloaca. 
In  the  male  a  spermery  is  located  on  each  side  of  the  body,  and  a  sperm  duct 
leads  from  it  which  also  passes  over  the  kidneys,  and  enters  the  cloaca,  where 


51 

it  leaves  the  body  of  the  male  and  enters  that  of  the  female.     The  egg  and 
sperm  unite  and  as  it  passes  down  the  oviduct,  a  thick  leathery  covering  is 


[fiu^C.tt] 


<*f'to«l#L<Af 


deposited  over  the  egg,  and  it  now  leaves  the  body  to  undergo  its  develop- 
ment, unprotected. 

Birds. — In  the  male  bird  there  is  a 
spermery  located  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  very  near  the  kidneys,  with 
a  tube  called  the  vas  def erens,  lead-  v 
ing  to  the  cloaca  along  side  the 
ureter,  which  carries  the  waste  from 
the  kidneys. 

The  female  bird  has  but  one  ovary 
which  is  located  near  the  kidney. 
A  large  number  of  eggs  are  formed, 
which,  one  by  one  drop  into  the 
oviduct — a  thick  large  tube.  After 

the  sperm  has  been  deposited  in  the  body  of  the  female  and  the  egg  and 
sperm  have  united,  the  egg  begins  to  divide.  The  shell  glands  are  very 
near  the  cloaca  and  as  the  egg  passes  these  glands,  a  shell  is  placed  over 


52 

it.     It  passes  into  the  cloaca  and  leaves  the  body,  where,  from  two  to  four 


8.  /4J 


weeks  it  is  cared  for  and  protected  by  the  parent  until  the  egg  has  hatched. 

Development  of  Bird's  Egg. — The  sperm  bores  its  way  into  the  egg  cell, 

the  two  unite  and  begin  to  divide.     The  whole  egg  does  not  divide,  only  the 

— ~ •s^^^  germ  cell,  so  the  blastula  is  formed  in 

I  M  ^"""^x     the  upper  part  of  the  egg.  A  gastrula 

Wli  \  is  also   formed   and   then    the   uttle 

oj         -Jr    embryo     begins    to     develop     very 
^7       j/       quickly,    being  nourished  the   while 
by  tiny  blood  vessels  which  are  con- 
nected  with   the   yolk    of    the    egg. 
When  it  is  fully  developed,  it  pecks 
the    shell  and  soon    emerges  a  little 
bird. 

Mammals. — In  the  rabbit  the  ovary  is  large  and  contains  a  number  of 
eggs.  When  an  egg  becomes  ripe  it  passes  into  the  oviduct,  wrhich  at  first 
is  large  and  convuluted  and  then  becomes  smaller  where  the  sperm  unites 
with  the  egg.  It  then  passes  down  a  little  farther,  where,  the  oviduct  be- 
comes much  larger  and  wider,  and  the  walls  are  made  of  folds  of  mucous 


53 

membrane.  The  egg  here  begins  to  develop.  The  whole  egg  divides  into 
many  parts,  until  a  little  embryo  is  formed,  which  is  nourished  by  blood 
vessels  of  the  mother  and  breathes  by  means  of  the  mother's  heart  beats. 


Development. — Projections  come  out  from  the  embryo  which  is  suspended 
in  a  membrane,  and  another  membrane  is  around  this.  The  projections, 
which  come  from  the  first  envelop  or  membrane,  are  formed  so  as  to  fit  into 
the  folds  of  the  last  part  of  the  oviduct.  All  the  young  of  mammals  are  born 
alive  except  the  duckmole. 

GENERAL   SUMMARY  IN  VERTEBRATES. 

Beginning  with  the  fishes  we  note  a  much  higher  development  than  we  have 
yet  studied.  The  vertebrates  all  have  a  spinal  column  and  highly  developed 
nervous  and  reproductive  systems.  In  the  lower  forms  as  the  Fishes,  Amphib- 
ians and  Reptiles,  the  eggs  are  laid  by  the  Fishes  and  Amphibia  in  the  water, 
and  the  Reptiles  in  the  sand,  where  they  are  left  unprotected  and  uncared  for, 
to  undergo  their  development.  But  in  Birds  and  Mammals,  we  notice  a  very 
devoted  care  by  the  parents  for  the  young  When  the  birds  lay  their  eggs 
they  protect  them  until  hatched,  and  then  they  watch  and  care  for  the  little 
birds  until  they  are  able  to  fly.  In  the  mammals  also,  the  young  are  care- 
fully guarded  by  the  parents. 

In  all  the  classes  of  Vertebrates,  except  the  Amphibia  and  mammals,  the 
egg  does  not  divide  the  same  way  as  we  studied  in  the  invertebrates.  Instead 
of  the  whole  egg  dividing,  only  the  germinal  cell  divides  and  forms  the  blasto- 
derm which  covers  the  rest  of  the  egg.  In  the  Mammals  and  Amphibia  the 
whole  egg  divides. 


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